SOLAR ENERGY

References:
1. http://personal.cityu.edu.hk/~bsapplec/solar1.htm
2. http://www.esru.strath.ac.uk/Courseware/Class-16110/
 Introduction to Solar Energy
•Although the solar surface and atmosphere comprise regions of very
different temperatures, the sun is often equated to a black body (i.e. a
perfect radiator) at a temperature of 5,762K
•The energy released from the sun comes about due to a fusion reaction in
which hydrogen nuclei combine to from helium, releasing energy in the
process. The evidence is strong that the overall reaction is:
4 1H + 2 e --> 4He + 2 neutrinos + 6 photons
•In this reaction, the final nuclei (Helium) have less internal energy than the
starting particles (Hydrogen). This difference is released as energy of
motion of the nuclei and electrons in the solar gas, low energy photons and
high energy neutrinos.
•The amount of energy involved is 26 MeV (or 26 x 10^6 eV) each time the
abovereaction take place. 90% of the energy generated by the sun comes
from this fusion reaction.
•The sun’s energy reaches the earth as solar radiation, which is composed
of discrete 'packets' of energy known as photons. The energy of a photon is
dictated by its frequency: E = hv
where E is the photon energy (J), h Planck’s constant (6.62 x 10^-34 Js)
and v the frequency of the photon (Hz).
•The sun radiates photons over a range of frequencies; these frequencies are related to the
radiation wavelength (l ) by the equation , l = c/ v. where c is the speed of light in a vacuum (3
x 10^8 m/s).
•The range of wavelengths that the sun emits is known as the solar spectrum (figure).
• The majority of solar radiation lies within the wavelength range of 0.2 – 2.5 mm.
•The types of radiation emitted by the sun are classed by their wavelength. At shorter
wavelengths there is X-rays, Gamma rays and ultraviolet radiation, while at the longer
wavelengths there is infrared radiation and radio waves.
• Photons in the shorter wavelength portion of the spectrum have
higher energy than those in the longer wavelength portion.
• The intensity of solar radiation (J/s or W/m^2) is known as the
Radiant Flux Density (RFD), often referred to as irradiance or
insolation.
• Outside the earth’s atmosphere insolation levels are approximately
1.35 kW/m^2.
• At the surface of the earth insolation levels are lower, e.g. at the
equator at sea level insolation is approximately 1kW/m^2.
• The shape of the solar spectrum changes as it reaches the earth’s
surface (the dotted line in figure ).
• The missing portions of the spectrum are caused by the absorption
of various wavelengths of solar radiation by the elements in the
earth’s atmosphere.
• Solar radiation reaching the surface of the earth has two
components – direct or beam radiation and diffuse radiation.
• As the name suggests beam radiation arrives directly from the sun
• Diffuse radiation is the portion of solar radiation, which is scattered
in the Earth’s atmosphere.
• On a clear day beam radiation makes up about 90% of the total
reaching the earth’s surface.
• The ratio of direct and diffuse radiation changes with the quantity of
cloud and haze in the atmosphere (atmospheric turbidity): e.g. on
heavily overcast days the beam component of solar radiation will be
0%.
• The total solar irradiance G (W/m^2) at a point on the earth’s
surface is therefore the sum of the diffuse and beam radiation:
• G = G beam + G diffuse
• The direct component, G beam, of solar
radiation falling on any surface can be
calculated with knowledge of basic solar
angles.
• The beam radiation falling on the surface can be split into its horizontal and vertical
components:
• Gv = Gn cosb cosa cosf
• Gh = Gn sinb sinf
• The total radiation intensity falling on the surface (W/m^2) is therefore
• Gs = Gn (sinb sinf + cosb cosa cosf )

• Diffuse radiation is assumed to be of equal intensity from all portions of the sky, so if
the intensity of diffuse solar radiation falling on the ground is Gd, the radiation falling
on a vertical surface will be 0.5Gd.

• Depending on the material from which the surface is constructed, the incident radiation
will either be reflected (r), absorbed (a) or transmitted (t). So for an incident intensity of
Gn, the reflected radiation intensity would be r Gn. The sum of the fractions for each
process is unity:
• r + a + t = 1.0

• Opaque materials such as concrete will absorb and reflect solar radiation, transparent
materials such as glass will reflect, absorb and transmit solar radiation. The preceding
information can be used to estimate the solar radiation falling on a surfaces of different
orientations and of different properties.
• This information can be used when
designing a solar collector system.
• Such systems are of various types as
illustrated by the following examples.
• Solar furnaces: solar radiation is concentrated on a small point by hundreds
of reflecting surfaces called heliostats.

• The resulting energy can be used to melt steel.

Solar power stations: parabolic solar collectors concentrate the sun’s rays
at a point. Figure shows concentrating collectors focusing solar radiation on a
tube with water at high pressure. When passed through a heat exchanger this
pressurised water can raise steam, which can then be passed to a turbine to
generate electricity.
Introduction to Photovoltaics

•Photovoltaic materials produce

electrical power from sunlight.
•The basic component of
photovoltaic power conversion is the
solar cell.
•The history of photovoltaic
materials goes back to 1839 when
Edmund Becquerel discovered the
photo galvanic effect: where electric
currents were produced from light
induced chemical reactions.
•However it was not until 1954 that
the first solar cell was developed
with an efficiency of 6%: efficiency =
power output/available solar power.
•Solar cells found their first use in
powering satellites, however their
use for terrestrial power production
has been growing rapidly. Figure
shows a diagram of a solar cell.
 PV arrays
•The photovoltaic panel (or array)
consists of a number of solar cells
connected in a series and parallel
configuration.
• The cells are encapsulated in a
tough rigid structure containing the
electrical contacts and circuitry
required to remove the liberated
electrons to an external circuit.
•The number of parallel-connected
cell branches dictates the current
output of the panel, while the number
of cells connected in series
determines the panel output voltage.
•The d.c. power output of the PV panel or array is suitable for such purposes as
battery charging or supplying a resistive load.
•However, if a.c. electrical components are to be supplied with power and/or the
PV system is connected to the grid, the power output of the PV source must be
inverted. Inversion involves the conversion of the d.c. output to a.c.
•A device called an inverter is used to convert the d.c. output of the photovoltaic
array to an alternating waveform.