Chapter 4

BEKC 2433
Chapter 4 - Fourier Transforms
LO3 : Describe and analyze linear time-invariant (LTI) systems in frequency-
domain by examine their inputs and outputs.
LO4 : Compute and determine a system output in either time / frequency given
the system input and description of the system using Laplace-Transform and /
or Z-Transform, as appropriate
 Introduction
- RECALL: Fourier series enable us to represent a periodic function
as a sum of sinusoids or complex sinusoids and to obtain the
frequency spectrum from the series.

x(t )   k
a e
k  
jk 0t

- Can we modify the FS idea to handle non-periodic signals?


x(t )   k
a e
k  
j k t

- This will give some non-periodic signals but not some that are
important. It cannot include all the possible frequencies!
 Cont...
- How about :

1

jt
x(t )  X ( )e d
2 
- Called as the ‘Fourier Integral’ i.e. Inverse Fourier Transform

- With given Fourier Transform,




 jt
X ( )  x (t ) e dt

- Note: X(ω) is complex-valued function of ω ϵ (-∞, ∞)

- Thus, the FT is an integral representation of a non-periodic function that is

analogous to a Fourier series representation of a periodic function.
Cont…
Cont…
 FT Notation
- If X(ω) is the Fourier Transform of x(t)..

1. x(t )  X ( )

2. X ( )  F  x(t )

3. x(t )  F 1 X ( )
 Definition of Fourier Transform
The forward and inverse Fourier Transform are defined
for aperiodic signal as:

Fourier series is used for periodic signals.

 Fourier Transform and
Laplace Transform Relationship
Compare Fourier Transform:

With Laplace Transform:

Setting this equation yield:

Is it true that: ?

Yes only if x(t) is absolutely integrable, i.e. has finite

energy:
 Define Three Useful Functions
A unit rectangular window (also called a unit gate)
function rect(x):

A unit triangle function Δ(x):

 Cont…
Interpolation function sinc(x):

sinc(x) is an even function of x.

sinc(x) = 0 when sin(x) = 0 except
when x=0, i.e. x = ±π,±2π, ±3π…..
sinc(0) = 1 (derived with L’Hôpital’s rule)
sinc(x) is the product of an oscillating
signal sin(x) and a monotonically
Decreasing function 1/x.
Therefore it is a damping
oscillation with period of
2π with amplitudedecreasing as 1/x.
 Fourier Transform
of x(t) = rect(t/τ)
Evaluation:

Since rect(t/τ) = 1 for -τ/2 < t <τ/2 and 0 otherwise

Effect of pulse width on the FT
 Fourier Transform of
unit impulse x(t) = δ(t)
Using the sampling property of the impulse, we get:

IMPORTANT – Unit impulse contains COMPONENT

AT EVERY FREQUENCY.
 Inverse Fourier
Transform of δ(ω)
Using the sampling property of the impulse, we
get:

Spectrum of a constant (i.e. d.c.) signal x(t)=1 is

an impulse 2πδ(ω).
 Inverse Fourier
Transform of δ(ω - ω0)
Using the sampling property of the impulse, we get:

Spectrum of an everlasting exponential is a

single impulse at ω=ω0.

or
 Fourier Transform of
everlasting sinusoid cos ω0t
Remember Euler formula:

we get:

Spectrum of cosine signal has two impulses

at positive and negative frequencies.
 Fourier Transform of
any periodic signal

Fourier series of a periodic signal x(t) with

period T0 is given by:

Take Fourier transform of both sides, we get:

 Fourier Transform of
a unit impulse train
Consider an impulse train

The Fourier series of this impulse train can be shown

to be:

we get:
Fourier Transform Pairs
 Some properties of the
Fourier transform
Linearity (superposition)
The Fourier transform is a linear operation based on the
properties of integration and therefore superposition
applies.
 Cont…
Time shifting (delay)

If a signal is delayed in time by to, its magnitude spectral

density remains unchanged and a negative phase -ωto
is added to each frequency component.
 Cont…
Coordinate scaling
The expansion or compression of a time waveform
affects the spectral density of the waveform. For a real-
valued scaling constant α and any signal f(t)

Example
 Cont…
Frequency shifting (Modulation)

Therefore multiplying a time function by

causes its spectral density to be translated in
frequency by

Example
 Cont…
Duality

If ,

Example
 Cont…
Differentiation
Time differentiation enhances the high frequency
components of a signal.

Integration
Integration in time suppresses the high-frequency
components of a signal.
 List Properties of
The Fourier Transform
Energy & Power of a resistor:
• Instantaneous power

• Total energy over a finite time interval

• Average power over a finite time interval

BEKC 2433 Chapter 1 38

 Signal Energy & Power:
• Total energy over a finite time interval
p(t)=x2(t)

• Time-averaged power over a finite time interval

BEKC 2433 Chapter 1 39

 Signal Energy & Power:
• Total energy over an infinite time interval

• Time-averaged power over an infinite time interval

BEKC 2433 Chapter 1 40

 Energy and power classifications of
signals are mutually exclusive
• Class 1 - Finite total energy & zero average
power

• Class 2 - Finite average power & infinite total

energy

• Class 3 - Infinite average power & infinite total

energy

BEKC 2433 Chapter 1 41

 Parseval’s Theorem

- Demonstrates one practical use of the FT.

- It relates the energy carried by a signal to the FT of
the signal.
- Ifp (t ) is the power associated with the signal, the
energy carried by the signal is

W  
p ( t )dt

- For1   resistor, p (t )  v (t )  i (t )  f (t ) , wheref (t )

2 2 2

stands for either voltage or current. The energy

delivered to the 1   resistor is

W1   
f 2 ( t )dt
 Cont…
- Parseval’s theorem states that this same energy can
be calculated in the frequency domain as
 1 
W 1    f ( t )dt  
2
2
F ( ) d 
 2  
- Parseval’s theorem states that the total energy
delivered to a 1   resistor equals the total area
1
under the square of f (t ) or 2 times the total area
under the square of the magnitude of the Fourier
transform of f (t )
- It provides the physical significance ofF ( ) , namely,
2
that F ( ) is a measure of the energy density (in
joules per hertz) corresponding to f (t ) .
 Cont…
2
- Since F ( ) is an even function, we may integrate from
0 to  and double the result,
 1 
W 1    f ( t )dt  
2
2
F ( ) d 
  0

- We may also calculate the energy in any frequency band

 1     2 as

1 2

2
W 1  F ( ) d 
 1

Parseval’s theorem shows that the energy associated with a

nonperiodic signal is spread over the entire frequency spectrum,
whereas the energy of the periodic signal is concentrated at the
frequencies of its harmonic components.
 Example I
3t
The voltage across a 10 resistor
 is v(t )  5e u (t )V
Find the total energy dissipated in the resistor.

Solution:
We can find the energy using either f (t )  v (t ) or F ( )  V ( )
Method 1
In the time domain,  
W10  10 f (t )dt  10 25e 6t dt
2
 0
e  250
6 t
 250   41 .67 J
6 0 6
 Cont…
Method 2
5
In the frequency domain, F ( )  V ( ) 
3  j
2 25
So that F ( )  F ( ) F * ( ) 
9 2

Hence, the energy dissipated is

10  10  25
 
2
W 10   F ( ) d   d
2    0 9 2

250  1 1    250  1     250

  tan        41 . 67 J
 3 3 0   3  2  6
 Example II
Calculate the fraction of the total energy dissipated by a 1  
resistor in the frequency band  10   10 rad/s when the
2 t
voltage across it is v (t )  e u (t )

Solution:
2t
Given that f (t )  v(t )  e u(t ) , then
1 2 1
F ( )   F ( ) 
2  j 4 2

The total energy dissipated by the resistor is

1  1  d
 
2
W 1  F ( ) d  
 0  0 4 2

1 1    1 1 
  tan 1
    0 . 25 J
 2 2 0   2 2

 Cont…

The energy in the frequencies  10   10 rad/s is

1 10 1 10 d 
 0  0 4   2
2
W  F (  ) d  

1 1  10  1 1  78 . 69  
  tan  1  tan 1
5      0 . 218 J
  2 2 0  2  2   180  

Its percentage of the total energy is

W 0 . 218
  87 . 4 %
W 1 0 . 25