Measure: D A I C

D M A I C
Measure
NICHE QUALITY SOLUTIONS PVT. LTD.,

INDORE
NICHE Redefining Quality For You 1

D M A I C
Objectives
At the end of the Measure phase, you will be able to :

• Define defects and opportunity for your project.
• Define the performance standards for ‘y’ selected in Define
phase
• Validate the measurement system
• Characterize the baseline data using mean and standard
deviation

D M A I C
Measure Phase: Definition
Measure the Existing System

and Establish Valid and Reliable
Metrics to Help Monitor
Progress Towards the
Goal(s) Defined
at the Previous Step

D M A I C
Data Types
• Continuous data
Height; Weight; temperature; the amount of sugar in tea
• Discrete data
The number of flaws in one meter of cloth; no of accidents on road,

defect data, defective data

D M A I C
Data Types
There are basically three categories of data indicators
- Continuous data
- Defect data
- Defective data
Data type can be changed
Example- A soft drink factory fills the drink in bottles with 3± 0.2 cm as space for
air, and sugar content of 1± 0.2%
- In case of defective data, if either of the two parameters fail, the bottle would
be determined as defective. The number of defectives can then be counted.
- In case of defect data, the number of flaws (either of two parameters failing
from specification) can be counted to get number of defects.
- In case if continuous data, the air space and sugar content can be measured
against the respective target values.
Continuous data is the best as it gives maximum information

D M A I C
DPU/DPMO
Defect is anything that results in customer dissatisfaction or non
conformance.
Unit is the number of parts (or assemblies) inspected.
Opportunity is a characteristics that s inspected
DPU : Defect per unit

DPO : Defect per opportunity
DPMO : Defect per million opportunity
Exercise: A service representative troubleshoots 10 TVs in a day, each having 100

possibilities of defects. He discovers that out of 10 TVs reported, 8 of them had 20
defects whereas 2 of them had none. What are the number of units, and
opportunities. Find DPU and DPMO also

D M A I C
RTY/FTY
• Rolled throughput yield (RTY) is the final cumulative yield when there are several
processes connected in series.
• RTY is the amount of non-defective products produced in the final process compared with
the total input in the first process.
y1 y2 y3 y4
• For example, as shown in Figure, there are four processes (A, B, C and D) connected in
consecutive series with yields y1,y2,y3 and y4 respectively
Then RTY of these processes is RTY = y1 * y2 * y3 * y4.

D M A I C
RTY/FTY
For a process shown in the figure, find out the RTY.

D M A I C
Sigma Level
Sigma is a Greek letter which is used globally for
• Calculating the variation of variables ( called standard
deviation)
• Determining the performance of processes ( called
sigma level)
Sigma level determines how capable a process is, in terms
of producing a product/ service with consistent quality
Sigma level performance measuring parameter, can be pf
two types – Short term and Long term depending on
the variation type , again short term and long term
variation.

Sigma Level
D M A I C
Sigma level is a metric which can be measured for a process by

finding out the number of standard deviations between centre and
the nearest specification limit when the process follows normal
distribution
LSL USL
σ σ σ σ σ
5
Smaller is the Variation, Higher is the σvalue of Sigma Level and better
is the process/ product performance
D M A I C
Sigma Level
USL
LSL USL LSL
σ σ σ σ σ σ σ
3σ 4σ
LSL USL LSL USL

σσ σσσ σ σ σ σσ σ
NICHE 5σ Redefining Quality For You 6σ 11

D M A I C
Specification versus Control Limits
• The value of sigma level changes on changing the specification

limits. These limits are determined by customer.
• Control limits are calculated based on the existing performance of
the process.
Specification Limits
Limits that are established for the process – they do not reflect how
the process is actually performing. Specification limits are based on
the customer requirements and detail how one wants the process to
behave.
Control Limits
Horizontal reference lines located above and below the centre line;
used to judge whether there is evidence that process is out of control.

D M A I C
Population versus Sample
Population Sample
• A group of entities manufactured • A group of entities actually
or scheduled to be measured in statistical survey
manufactured that contains the • Sample is a subset of
characteristics
population of interest. Since
• Generally the data is large,
data is small, parameters can
therefore it becomes impossible
to accurately know the be calculated for accurate
parameters values
• Example- Counting the number • Example-Dividing the country
of Maruti cars in India into zones and counting the
number of cars/km. Then to
calculate for the whole
Population
population, finding the product
Sample
of area and the number f
cars/km.
D M A I C
Variation

D M A I C
Variation
• Variation due to Expected causes/ Random causes/ Common

causes
Variation that is inherent or a natural part of the
process.
• Variation due to Un expected causes/ Assignable causes/
Special causes
Unusual pattern of variability that demonstrates
occurrences that are not normally part of a process.

D M A I C
Short and Long Term Performance

Short Term Performance Long Term Performance
• Involves sample data • Involves all population data
• Includes only common cause • Includes only common cause
variation – Common cause and special cause variation –
variation is variation that is Special cause of variaton is an
inherent or a natural part of unusual pattern of variability
the process. It is also called that demonstrates
random variation. occurrences that are not
• Calculated using the best normally part of a process
subgroup from rational sub Assignable & non random
grouping variations are other terms
• Determines how capable the used to describe special
process is. cause variation.
• Determines the performance
of process for long - period

D M A I C
Process Dynamics
• A process can be affected by common causes and special

causes
• Variation may occur due to change in operator or shift, change
in raw material type, change in machine of same utility, mould
change etc.
• All the mentioned causes do not let the process mean to fall
exactly at the target (centre of spec.).
• Based on number of experiments done and historical data,
statisticians say that there is a shift in process mean by 1.5
σ
from the centre of the specification

D M A I C
Process Dynamics
Mean of a short- Short – term

term process drifts
Performance
by 1.5 sigma over
a long period of
time
Time A
Time B
Time C
Time D
Time E
Long – term
(sustained)
Performance

D M A I C
Process Dynamics
LSL USL Static Process

6σ 6σ Process mean can move to the left or
σ σ σ σ σ σ right by 1.5 sigma from centre of
0.001 0.001 specification
PPM PPM
1.5
12σ LSL σ USL
7.5σ 4.5σ
Dynamic Process
3.4
Shortest distance from mean and closest
specification limit is 4.5 sigma PPM
The probability of process going out-of-

specification is 3.4 ppm
12
σ
D M A I C
Data Types
Binomial Defective
data
Discrete
Poisson Defect data
Normal Continuous
data
Continuous Exponential Life related

data
i rt si D ytili ba bor P
Weibull Mechanical
characteristic

D M A I C
Performance Standard
A Performance Standard defines

• The customer want
• Clearly whether a process is performing well or not
E.g. loan approval within 24 hours, first call resolution
A Performance Standard translates the “Voice of Customer” a

measurable metric.

D M A I C
Performance Standard Matrix
Reduce weight variance of Reduce errors in invoice

Tyres
• Item: Tyre weight • Item: invoice
• Metric: Weight in Kg/Kg of • Metric: No of errors/ invoice
production. • Opportunity: 15/invoice
• Opportunity: 1/unit • Data type: Discrete
• Data type: Continuous • Standard for judgement: Audit
• Target: As given by R&D requirement – zero error
• USL: +5% • Measurement system
• LSL: -5% – Frequency: Once/month
• Measurement system – Gage: Visual inspection
– Frequency: 20 tyres /day
– Gage: Weighing machine

D M A I C
Data Collection
• The next step is to collect data and perform Measurement system

and Process capability analysis. Based on metric chosen for y,
historical data is taken. In case , the data is not already available, it
may be collected for a justifiable period. During data collection,
following things have to be taken care of –
– Involve team
– Take sufficient data for reliable results
– Sometimes high amount of data us required. This may be
difficult, involve high cost, labor, boredom, redundancy, and may
result in erroneous data. In such cases, Data may be collected
on sampling basis.
• Represent population
Criterion for good sample •Should not be biased
•Should be random
D M A I C
Measurement System Analysis
Measurement value
= True Value + Measurement Error
Statistically,
µActual(Part) + µ Meas.System = µ Observed(Total)

σ2Actual(Part) + σ2Meas.System = σ2Observed(Total)
No parameter can be measured accurately!!!
Exercise – Each team should give at least two examples of
measurement errors which are observed in routine

D M A I C

MSA implies assessing the existing measurement system for the metric chosen for the
project y.
Observed Variation
True Variation
Measurement
System Variation
Reproducibility
Gage variation
(includes
repeatability)

D M A I C

When data is collected, following the variation involved apart from the actual
process variation
Observed Process Variation
Actual Process Variation Measurement Variation
Long Short Variation Variation

Term Term due to due to
Process Process gauge operator
Variation Variation
Accuracy Reproducibility
(Bias)
Precision
(Pure Error)
Repeatability
Stability
(time dependent)
Linearity
(value dependent)

D M A I C
Choosing the Scale: Discrimination

The minimum unit of measurement should be able to measure precisely to the level of smaller than one- tenth of the range of variation existing in the process. It is referred to
as discrimination or gauge resolution or granularity of the scale, or more commonly, the least count.
If 5 ft is the height,
the scale should
have at least 50
graduations
( Least count) to
measure five feet.

D M A I C
Causes of Error & Assessment
How to Assess the Measurement System based on

Data Type?
D a t a t y p e
C o n t i n u o u s D i s c r e t e
M e a n V a r i a t i o nT i m e M e a n V a r i a t i o nT i m e
% L i n e a %r i t yB i a s % R & R% I n s t a% b i E l i tf y f e c %t i v eE n f f e i c s %i se n I cn y s t a b i l i
A c c u r a Lc y i n e a r i Pt y r e c i s i oS n t a b i l i t By y E x p Be ry t s E x p e D r it ss c r e t e
S t a b i l i t y

D M A I C
Causes of Measurement Error
• Accuracy:Difference between the average of observed values

and the standard
• Linearity: Consistency of the measurement system across its
entire range.
• Repeatability: Variation observed if the same operator is asked
to measure repeatedly the same unit with the same measuring
equipment
• Reproducibility: Variation observed if two or more operators
measure the same unit with the same measuring equipment.
• Stability: Variation which occurs with time. It is observed if the
same operator measures the same unit with the same measuring
equipment over an extended period.
Process variation can be due to common causes and special
causes.

D M A I C
Precision versus Accuracy

Precision is the measure of consistency of a process in terms of its
deviation from the target. The metric to determine it is standard
deviation.
In MSA, the gauge should be able to resolve the tolerance into ten
levels goal achievement can be on stake.
Accuracy is the ability to stay on target as measured by the mean.
In MSA, to be able to see the process variation, the gauge noise

must be less than the process noise.
Every process is desire to be both accurate (on target) and

precise (least variation)
Exercise: Each team should give at least two examples of measuring

accuracy and precision from day-to-day life.

D M A I C
Inaccurate and Imprecise

D M A I C
Accurate and Imprecise

D M A I C
Precise but Inaccurate

D M A I C
Accurate and Precise

D M A I C
Why MSA is important?
“If you cannot express what you know as figures, that means you
do not know that clearly. If you do not know it clearly, you
cannot control it. If you cannot control it, luck will be deciding
factor of the outcome.”
…..Mikel J. Harry
• Measurement System gives better understandings of the
process.
• Measurement System is assessed and corrected so as to get
more reliable data for right decision – making.

D M A I C
Assessment of Mean: Continuous Data
µActual (Part) + µ Meas.System = µ Observed(Total)
In- accuracy:
Difference in true
value and
observed value
In – stability:
Inaccuracy over Time
time
Non- Linearity:
Inaccuracy over
value
LSL USL
D M A I C
Assessment of Variation: Continuous Data
σ 2
Actual (Part) +σ 2
Meas. System =σ 2
Observed(Total)
Repeatability Reproducibility
GOOD
Operator Operator Operator

1 2 3
POOR
Operator Operator Operator

1 2 3

D M A I C
Assessment of Variation: Continuous Data
Repeatability Reproducibility
GOOD
Operator 1 Operator 2 Operator 3
POOR
Operator 1 Operator 2 Operator 3

D M A I C
Assessment of Error: Discrete Data

• % Effectiveness (Assessment of Mean): Percentage of the times the observed is
equal to the true value (Standard)
• % Efficiency (Assessment of Variation): Percentage of times the repeated
measurements yield same result.
• Example
Operator Standard Operator1 Operator2 Standard

Pass Fail Pass Pass Fail
Pass Pass Pass Fail Pass
Pass Pass Pass Pass Pass
Fail Fail Fail Pass Fail
Effectiveness = 75% Efficiency = 25%
* Standard or reference values are generally given by experts (quality personnel).

D M A I C
Criteria for Acceptance

Classification Indicator Criteria
Accept Caution Reject
Mean % Bias <5% 5-10% >10%

% Linearity
Variation % Gauge R&R <10% 10-30% >30%
t eer csi Ds uounit no C
Mean % Effectiveness >90% 5-10% >70%
Variation % Efficiency >90% 5-10% >70%

Attribute R&R
D M A I C
MSA Checklist
Data has been collected taking a good sample from the population.
Before conducting MSA, it is suggested that the following
checklist is used.
• Determine the gauge: Are there more than one gauges for the
same
• Define the procedure of measurement
• Are there any standards available? If yes, are they correct and
updated? If yes, are they used thoroughly? If no, plan with the
team to do the same.
• Define the design intent of the gauge or demand from supplier
– Discrimination (Resolution / Granularity)
– Accuracy
– Precision

D M A I C
MSA Checklist
• Find out Accuracy and Precision from the baseline
data as:
• Precision:
If s > tolerance/10, the measurement is not
acceptable. There is excessive noise in the process
due to the measurement system
• Accuracy:
Mean – True (Standard) value = Bias (Inaccuracy)
This cannot always be found as the true value may not
always be known.
• Once the checklist is filled, R&R study is carried out to
further study the causes of variation.

D M A I C
R&R Study
• Used to analyze causes of variation for the data.
• Collect sample data & Perform measurements
• Analyze statistically – R&R study
• Judge the results
• If required, correct the system and redefine baseline (existing
performance level)
Discrete Attribute R&R
Continuous Gauge R&R

T at a D

D M A I C
R&R Study : Guidelines
Gauge R&R Attribute Gauge R&R

Minimum number of Minimum number of
samples that should be samples that should be
taken = 10 taken = 10
Try taking mixed samples. Samples should be random, representative of
population, and unbiased.
Study should be done for all operators performing measurements in
process, minimum number should be two.
At least three measurements by each operator is preferred.
Let operators take Blind measurements – Operators should not know the
readings by other operators or the true value.
The guidelines are process-dependent and may vary on availability of resource /
parts
D M A I C
R&R Study : Crossed or Nested Designs

There are two designs available in Gauge R&R Study
Crossed Design: Operators
Used where some parts can be used for repeated Opr1 Opr2
measurements. As a result, for the study, all operators
are given the same parts. Example: Weight of a drug.
Nested Design: 1 2 3
Used where some parts cannot be used for repeated

Parts
measurements as the parts get destroyed on testing.
Therefore, all operators are given different parts of
different lots to measure for the study. Example: Operators
Measuring the effect of a drug by dissolving it in a
Opr1 Opr2
chemical.
1 2 3 4 5 6
Parts
D M A I C
Analysis of the Graphs
A. Shows contribution of components to the total variation

B. The graph is useful to find stability of repetitive measurements by
operators. Investigate causes or re-measure for points going beyond
the control limits.
C. Depicts capability to detect different samples.Maximum number of
points should go outside the control points.
D. Sample to sample variation is shown. Consistent values for same
sample imply that the process variations are not depicted well.
E. Shows mean of measurements by operators. It is good to have
minimum difference in means implying similarity of measurements by
operators.
F. Shows how different each operator’s measurements are for the same
and different sample. Values should be same for the same sample.

D M A I C
Gauge R&R: Result Analysis
I. % Tolerance of Total gauge R&R

i. < 10% - Acceptable
ii. 10 – 30% - If the process is highly sensitive and is working at a
high sigma level, the system cannot be accepted and needs
correction. If the process is performing very low, measurement
system may be accepted and scope for improvements in process
should be studied.
iii. > 30% - Further analyze using graphical plots to reach the cause(s)
and correct the measurement system before going further,
iv. This value is unavailable if tolerance width is not given.
II. % Contribution (of Variance)
i. Total gauge R&R Variance should be small compared to Part – to
– part Variance.
ii. This value is seen when the process tolerance is not entered.

D M A I C
Gauge R&R: Result Analysis
III. Number of Distinct Categories

i. This value is given by Round (Std. Dev Parts /Std. DevG.R&R *1.41)
ii. < 4, data following a pattern / groups.
iii.>= 4, Measurement system is acceptable. Higher is the value,
better it is.
IV. Resolution
If X bar chart goes out of the control limits, it implies part – to – part
variation exceeds measurement system variation.
Repeatability and Reproducibility: Whichever has greater value of
variance (% contribution) dominates over the other.
Conclusion: Measurement system is not OK for the given process
tolerance.
Note: Though these are guidelines for judgement but for each process,
statistical and graphical analysis must be done before concluding.
D M A I C
Sub-grouping
• Never knowingly subgroup unlike things together.

– Each subgroup must be logically homogenous.
• Minimize the variation within each subgroup.
– The variation within each subgroup will define the
background noise level for the data.
• Maximise the opportunity for variation between the
subgroups.
– If there is any possibility that two things may differ, make
sure that they are in different subgroups.
• Treat the chart in accordance with the use of the data.
– If single values are collected, then subgroups of size one
may be most appropriate for the data
• Establish standard sampling procedures
D M A I C
Rational sub-grouping

D M A I C
Sub-grouping
An injection molding process is used to make refrigerator door handles. The

door handle mould has four cavities (forms four handles at a time). You are
investigating premature door handle failures in the field and suspects variation
in thickness as a potential root cause. A snapshot of data from successive
cycles is presented below, representing each of the four cavities over time,
measured in millimeters (assume this data is representative of a larger
sample). What would be a rational subgroup?
Cycle Cavity1 Cavity2 Cavity3 Cavity4
1 3.6 3.4 3.7 3.5

2 3.9 4.0 3.7 3.6
3 4.1 4.4 4.5 4.3
4 3.8 3.9 3.6 3.5
D M A I C
Process Capability
Process Capability is the capability of a process to meet

customer requirement (Specification limits).
Process capability Index is a metric used to quantify capability
of a process.

D M A I C
Process Capability
Process Variation:
-3σ +3σ
Total Process Variation = 6σ

D M A I C
Process Capability
LSL USL
-3σ +3σ
Process Variation
Tolerance/ Customer requirement
Cp= Tolerance/ Process Variation
Cp= USL – LSL/ 6σ

D M A I C
Process Capability
Cp= 1.33 ProcessShift Cp= 1.33

LSL LSL
USL USL
Rejection
Process Dispersion Process Dispersion

D M A I C
Process Capability
Cpk:
This is a capability index which takes process location as
well as the capability in to account.
Cpk is calculated as minimum of CPU & CPL where:
CPU=USL- X /3 σ
CPL= X - LSL/ 3 σ

D M A I C
Process Capability & Process Performance
Cp is potential process capability index when process mean is equal to specification center
Cpk is potential process capability index when process mean is not equal to specification
center
Pp ( Process performance) is actual process capability index when process mean is equal to
specification center
Ppk is actual process capability index when process mean is not equal to specification center
Cp= USL – LSL

6σ
Cpk = Min. (Cpl , Cpu )
Pp= USL – LSL
6σ lt
Ppk = Min. (Ppl , Ppu )

D M A I C
Process Capability
• Cp,Cpk – The capability index for a stable process. The estimate sigma is
based on within subgroup variation.
• Pp,Ppk – The process performance index. The estimate of sigma is
based on total variation.
• Think of Ppk as being the actual performance of the process since its
estimate of variation includes ALL observed variation.
• Think of Cpk as the potential performance, or the potential capability.
This is, it is what we’d get for the Ppk IF we removed all instability
between subgroups.
• Think of Cp as the best potential performance. Not only does it assume
the process is completely stable, but it also assumes it is perfectly
centered.

D M A I C
Process Capability – Cp and Pp
• Cp uses and estimate of standard deviation based on within

subgroup variation
Cp = USL – LSL
6σ
R / d2 subgroups
when subgroup ranges are specified

S / C4
Where σ subgroups = when subgroup std deviations are specified
MR / d 2
when subgroup std deviations are specified

D M A I C
Process Capability – Cp and Pp
Pp uses and estimate of standard deviation based on within

subgroup variation
Pp = USL – LSL
6σ Overall
Where σ overall

D M A I C
Process Capability
Example:
The following is data of measuring length of 50 samples of an auto part 10 samples
each for 5 days. The specification for length is 25±4 cm. Conduct process capability
analysis and find out Cp, Cpk, Pp & Ppk.
Day1 Day2 Day3 Day4 Day5
24.2 24.3 20.8 17.2 26.5
29.0 20.5 26.1 19.0 28.6
18.6 23.1 24.5 17.8 25.4
26.0 25.6 21.0 23.5 16.2
18.2 30.4 20.5 20.1 24.1
26.4 32.5 26.2 18.9 34.0
20.6 27.5 24.6 16.5 19.2
27.5 31.5 24.5 28.2 26.5
20.4 24.1 22.0 26.2 24.8
26.8 21.5 18.7 14.9 19.6

Measure: D A I C

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D M A I C

NICHE QUALITY SOLUTIONS PVT. LTD.,

NICHE Redefining Quality For You 1

At the end of the Measure phase, you will be able to :

NICHE Redefining Quality For You 2

Measure Phase: Definition

Measure the Existing System

NICHE Redefining Quality For You 3

Height; Weight; temperature; the amount of sugar in tea

The number of flaws in one meter of cloth; no of accidents on road,

NICHE Redefining Quality For You 4

NICHE Redefining Quality For You 5

DPU : Defect per unit

Exercise: A service representative troubleshoots 10 TVs in a day, each having 100

NICHE Redefining Quality For You 6

NICHE Redefining Quality For You 7

For a process shown in the figure, find out the RTY.

NICHE Redefining Quality For You 8

NICHE Redefining Quality For You 9

Sigma level is a metric which can be measured for a process by

LSL USL LSL USL

NICHE 5σ Redefining Quality For You 6σ 11

Specification versus Control Limits

• The value of sigma level changes on changing the specification

NICHE Redefining Quality For You 12

Population versus Sample

NICHE Redefining Quality For You 14

• Variation due to Expected causes/ Random causes/ Common

NICHE Redefining Quality For You 15

Short and Long Term Performance

NICHE Redefining Quality For You 16

• A process can be affected by common causes and special

NICHE Redefining Quality For You 17

Mean of a short- Short – term

NICHE Redefining Quality For You 18

LSL USL Static Process

The probability of process going out-of-

Continuous Exponential Life related

NICHE Redefining Quality For You 20

A Performance Standard defines

E.g. loan approval within 24 hours, first call resolution

A Performance Standard translates the “Voice of Customer” a

NICHE Redefining Quality For You 21

Performance Standard Matrix

Reduce weight variance of Reduce errors in invoice

NICHE Redefining Quality For You 22

• The next step is to collect data and perform Measurement system

Measurement System Analysis

µActual(Part) + µ Meas.System = µ Observed(Total)

NICHE Redefining Quality For You 24

Measurement System Analysis

NICHE Redefining Quality For You 25

Measurement System Analysis

Actual Process Variation Measurement Variation

Long Short Variation Variation

NICHE Redefining Quality For You 26

Choosing the Scale: Discrimination

NICHE Redefining Quality For You 27

Causes of Error & Assessment

How to Assess the Measurement System based on

NICHE Redefining Quality For You 28

Causes of Measurement Error