Effective Instructional Strategies For Correctional Education Programs

Effective Instructional Strategies for
Correctional Education Programs

Joseph Calvin Gagnon, Ph.D.
George Mason University
Mike Krezmien, M.A.

University of Maryland
Richard Krause
1
Agenda
 Technology
 Graduated instruction and strategy instruction
2
Educational Reform:
 Standards-driven reform is the primary

approach to assuring today’s high school
graduates are internationally competitive
 Prompted by the public dissatisfaction

and poor performance by U.S. students
on international assessments
(McLaughlin, Shepard, & O’Day, 1995),
educators, curriculum specialists, and
national organizations have focused on
development of challenging standards for
over a decade.
3
Educational Reform:
 Assuring all students achieve in math is a

national priority (IDEA, 1997; No Child Left
Behind Act of 2001)
 Success in math is considered a gateway to
many educational and occupational
opportunities (Jetter, 1993)
4
Educational Reform:
 Recent legislation has assisted these efforts

and assured that students with disabilities are
included, to the maximum extent possible
 Central to this notion of reform is the

assertion that all students are, “entitled to
instruction that is grounded in a common set
of challenging standards” (McLaughlin, 1999,
p. 10)
5
Educational Reform:
 Rigorous standards are especially crucial for
students with learning disabilities (LD) and
emotional disturbances (ED), who are commonly
included in the general education environment.
 These students have historically been provided a

less rigorous curriculum with IEP goals that:
 Focus on computation (Shriner, Kim, Thurlow,
& Ysseldyke, 1993)
 Have minimal linkage to long-term general
education outcomes (Nolet & McLaughlin,
2000; Sands, Adams, & Stout, 1995; Smith,
1990)
6
Educational Reform:
 Some states require students to pass

assessments with open-ended problem
solving tasks
7
Real World Problem Solving and Technology:
 Computer/videodisc based
 Effective instruction and instructional design
variables
 Anchored instruction
 Web based instruction (WBI)
 Calculators
 Standard
 Graphing
8
 Technology-based instructional approaches

can significantly affect student learning and
acquisition of higher-level math concepts;
particularly when embedded within real-world
problem solving tasks (Maccini & Gagnon, in
press)
 This approach relies on the use of a
computer, calculator, or other specialized
systems as the mode of instruction (Vergason
& Anderegg, 1997)
9
 Technology-based instruction can:
 Assist teachers in moving away from a
focus on memorization and routine
manipulation of numbers in formulas and
toward instruction and activities embedded
in real-world problems (Bottge &
Hasselbring, 1993)
 Promote active student learning (Kelly,
Gersten, & Carnine, 1990)
10
 Embedding problem solving information

within a real world context helps:
 Activate student conceptual knowledge
when presented with a real-life problem

solving situation (Gagne, Yekovich, &
Yekovich, 1993)
 Improve student motivation, participation,
and generalization (Palloway & Patton,
1997)
11
Teacher Quote:
“I incorporate fun activities such as timing a
wave, weighing bananas, and counting chips in
a cookie to acquire data. Students are included
in groups and usually have successful
experiences with others as they do the activities”
12
 Anchored instruction is one such example of

embedding problem solving situations in a
real-life situation via interactive video-disc
instruction (see Bottge & Hasselbring, 1993)
 Students with special needs may need

additional support to benefit from enhanced
anchored instruction
 Additional review of the videodisc
 Cooperative learning strategies (Bottge et

al., 2002)
13
 However, “Rather than capitalizing on the
insights and motivation that students bring to
the classroom, schools may actually be
wasting valuable time by withholding more
authentic and motivating problems until
‘prerequisite’ skills are acquired” (Bottge et
al., 2001, p. 312)
 It is effective to use videodisc-based

interventions that embed interesting and age-
appropriate problem-solving situations
(Bottge, 1999; Bottge & Hasselbring, 1993;
Bottge et al., 2001; Bottge et al., 2002)
14
Recommendations:
 Incorporate di (e.g., model, guided practice,
review, feedback) within technology-based
interventions
 Incorporate effective instructional design

variables within technology-based instruction to
reduce student confusion and mathematical
errors
15
 Discrimination: Skills are introduced, practiced,

and mixed with other types of problems. Specific
instruction and remediation provide for
discrimination
 Range of Examples: Students introduced to
fractions less than one, improper fractions, and
provided strategies for reading and writing both
16
 Explicit Strategy Teaching: Students provided

explicit problem solving strategies
 Computer software should incorporate a wide
range of examples and nonexamples into
instruction for discrimination practice and
generalization
17
 One example of a series that uses technology,

the noted instructional design features, and
teaching practices recommended by NCTM is:
 The Systems Impact Direct Instruction
videodisc mathematics programs (DIV)
(Mastering Fractions, Mastering Decimals and
Percents, Mastering Equations, Roots, and
Exponents, Mastering Ratios and Word
Problems, and Mastering Informal Geometry)
(Scott Foresman, 1991)
18
Recommendations:
 Incorporate technology-based tutorial
programs that embed basic math skills and
higher order thinking within problem-solving
situations
 This allows students to practice remedial
skills within context
 For example, it is recommended that
computers be available to students with LD

for tutorial assistance
19
Example:
 The Hot Dog Stand and Geometric
SuperSupposer (both programs are available
from Sunburst Communications at
http://www.sunburst.com/index/html)
20
Example:
 The Adventures of Jasper Woodbury consists
of 12 video-disc based adventures (plus video
based analogs, extensions and teaching tips)
that focus on mathematical problem finding and
problem solving
 Each adventure is designed from the

perspective of the standards recommended by
the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
(NCTM)
21
 Each adventure provides multiple opportunities

for problem solving, reasoning, communication
and making connections to other areas such as
science, social studies, literature and history
(NCTM, 1989; 1991)
 Jasper adventures are designed for students in
grades 5 and up
 Each videodisc contains a short (approximately
17 minute) video adventure that ends in a
complex challenge
22
 The adventures are designed like detective

novels where all the data necessary to solve the
adventure (plus additional data that are not
relevant to the solution) are embedded in the
story
 Jasper adventures also contain "embedded

teaching" episodes that provide models of
particular approaches to solving problems
23
 Geometry
 Blueprint for Success, The Right Angle, The
Great Circle Race
 Algebra
 Working Smarter, Kim’s Komet, The General is
Missing
http://peabody.vanderbilt.edu/projects/funded/jasp
er/Jasperhome.html
24
 The Jasper series is currently being used in

classrooms in every state in the U. S., as well as
in classrooms in Canada and China. Jasper is
published and distributed by LEARNING, Inc., a
division of Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
25
Web-based Instruction:
 A promising approach is the TRIP project
(Christle et al., 2001), which:
 Extends the principles of anchored
instruction and contextualized learning
(Cognition and Technology Group at
Vanderbilt, 1990)
 Includes Web-based instruction (WBI)
within a universally designed environment
 Students work collaboratively
 Research is needed to fully realize the

effects of WBI, but the future appears
promising
26
 Limitations to the use of technology:

 The review was limited to 11 published
articles that met all criteria
 Although 73% (n = 8) of the studies
determined significant treatment effects,

three of the studies noted that the
proficiency levels of students with
disabilities fell below the established
criterion for learning of 80%
27
 Further, of the articles that obtained significant

findings, only 45% (n = 5) of the interventions
directly programmed for maintenance and 55%
(n = 6) programmed for generalization
 The generalizability of the findings may also be

of concern because no information was
available on new technologies (e.g., DVD and
streaming video)
28
Calculators:
 In one study, calculator use was the most

prevalent adaptation noted by teachers
Maccini & Gagnon, 2002)
 Consistent with Etlinger and Ogletree (1982),

teacher responses involved two primary
categories:
29
 The "practical" function: The use of

calculators to complete tedious
calculations, save time, increase student
motivation, and to decrease math anxiety
 The "pedagogical" function: Relates to

similarities between calculators, textbooks,
and manipulatives in that each enhances
student understanding and competence in
mathematics
30
 These classifications are consistent with the
five primary functions of calculators as stated
by the NCTM
 Within the practical classification, NCTM
identifies the use of calculators to
 Perform tedious computations that arise
when working with real data in problem
solving situations
 Concentrate on the problem-solving
process rather than calculations associated
with problems
 Gain access to mathematics beyond their
level of computational skill
31
 Teachers noted, Daily use of calculators to

eliminate arithmetic phobia (Maccini & Gagnon,
2002)
 Use of calculators to increase motivation has
also been noted by researchers (Deshler, Ellis,
Lenz, 1996)
32
 The pedagogical function coincides with two

other uses identified by NCTM
 To explore, develop, and reinforce concepts
including estimation, computation,

approximation, and properties
 To experiment with math ideas and

discover patterns
33
 Teachers noted using calculators as an aid

for students to solve problems,
 Students use calculators only after
attempting to solve problems
 Students use calculators to help solve

problems, but still must show an
understanding by listing their steps
34
 Calculators can be used to enhance learning

by helping students to visualize connections
between symbolic and graphic solutions
(Milou, Gambler, & Moyer, 1997; Demana &
Waits, 1990), teachers noted,
 Students use calculators or graphing

calculators for Algebra II
35
 Salend and Hoffstetter (1996) assert the

importance of:
 Training students to use calculators
 Using an overhead projector to teach this

skill
 Locating and describing the function of
each key to students
 Providing examples of calculator use
36
 Students should be provided opportunities to

practice calculations, including estimation skills
and reviewing answers obtained through
calculator use
37
 Another important category of teacher

responses related to teaching students to use
calculators,
 I do extensive work with students on how to

use the calculator
 I use an overhead calculator to assist with

VAKT [i.e., visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and
tactile learning]"
38
 Based on teacher responses, the literature,

and NCTM position statements (1998) the
following recommendations for teachers are
noted:
1. Model calculator application
2. Use calculators in computation, problem
solving, concept development, pattern
recognition, data analysis, and graphing
3. Integrate calculator use in assessment
and evaluation
39
4. Remain current with state-of-the-art

technology
5. Explore and develop new ways to use
calculators to support instruction and
assessment
40
Concrete-Semiconcrete-Abstract
Instructional Sequence (C-S-A)
Bruner’s structure-oriented theory of learning:
Enactive mode (e.g., the “doing” phase” - using
concrete objects to represent problems -
concrete representations)
Iconic mode (e.g., the “seeing phase”
visualizing representations of the problem -
semiconcrete representations)
Symbolic mode (e.g., using abstract symbols to
represent the problem - abstract
representations)
41
C-S-A:
Research: Why teach for meaning?

Students with learning problems have problems with:
 classifying objects or ideas
 finding logical relationships/making logical

deductions
 generating hypotheses choosing among alternative
routes
42
C-S-A:
 Empirical studies have validated CSA use with

students with high incidence disabilities for:
 Whole number operations
 Word problems
 Place value
 Introductory algebra skills
43
C-S-A:
Recommendations for Practice:

Teach for meaning prior to abstract
representations
Examples:
1. Guidelines for using manipulatives - In the
Focus journal p. 11
2. Addition Sample Problem - In the TEC
journal p. 14
44
C-S-A:
Solve: 3a + 2a + 5 = 20
Concrete: Use paper plates and beans to solve:
1 bean = 1 unit 1 paper plate = variable “a” =
+ +••••• =••••••••••••••••••••
= •••••••••••••••
••• ••• ••• ••• •••
=3 Source: Allsopp (1999, p. 78)
45
C-S-A:
Solve: 3a + 2a + 5 = 20
Semiconcrete: Use pictures of plates and beans to solve
– = # less than 10; = tens variable “a” =
+ + ––––– =  
+ + ––––– =  
+ + ––––– =  ––––––––––
+ =  –––––
––– ––– ––– ––– –––
46
C-S-A:
Solve: 3a + 2a + 5 = 20
Abstract:
5a + 5 = 20
5a + 5 - 5 = 20 - 5
5a = 15
a=3
Check:
5(3) + 5 = 20; 20 = 20 Yes, it checks.
47
Strategy Instruction:
Strategy instruction in math, such as a first

letter Mnemonic strategy, is used to help
students memorize and recall effective
problem solving skills
 For example, the steps in the strategy can

help remind students to read the problem
carefully, to obtain a whole picture of the
problem (problem representation), to solve
the solution, and to check your answers
(problem solution)
48
Strategy Instruction Can Include:
 Structured worksheets/cue cards to help
students remember problem solving steps or
strategies for solving problems
 Mnemonics to help students recall problem
solving steps or important facts
Research:
Strategy instruction that incorporated a first-letter
mnemonic and structured worksheets helped
students with LD learn prealgebra skills and
concepts (Maccini & Hughes, 2000)
49

Refer to the “STAR Strategy Steps” as an
example of how to teach both problem
representation and problem solution
using a first letter mnemonic strategy
Example:
1. STAR - See article in TEC journal, p.
10 and instructional steps, p. 12
50
Example of a Structured Worksheet:
STAR Steps Answers
Search the word problem ____________________________________
a. Read the problem
____________________________________
carefully
b. Ask yourself, “What ____________________________________
facts do I know?”“What do
I need to find?”
c. Write down facts
Translate the words into
____________________________________
an equation in picture
form ____________________________________
a. Represent the
problem (use Graphic
51
Org.) and draw a picture
Answer the problem
a. Look for patterns: ____________________________________
1) What is the ____________________________________

difference
between frames?
2) Look for recursive
patterns and write
numbers under GO
Review the Solution
____________________________________
a. Reread the problem
____________________________________
b. Ask, “Does the
answer make sense? ____________________________________
Why?
c. Check answer 52
Example 2: CAP Strategy (for Abstract
Application)
C = Combine like terms
A = Ask yourself, “ How can I isolate the
variable?”
P = Put the value of the variable in the initial
equation, and check if the equation is
“balanced”
53
Solve: 3a + 2a + 5 = 20
C = 5a + 5 = 20
A: “To isolate the variable, I need to subtract 5
from both sides” 5a + 5 - 5 = 20 - 5; 5a = 15;
a = 3.
P: 5(3) + 5 = 20; 20 = 20 Yes, it checks.
Allsopp (1999)
54
Strategy Instruction
Strategy instruction in math, such as a first letter

mnemonic
strategy, is used to help students memorize and recall
effective problem solving skills.
 For example, the steps in the strategy can help

remind students to read the problem carefully, to
obtain a whole picture of the problem
(representation), to solve the solution, and to
check your answers.
55
 Guidelines for using a first-letter mnemonic
strategy:
 Model how to use the strategy and the purpose
of the strategy.
 Model each letter and relate it to the math task
(e.g., solving equations)
56
 Model application of the strategy and relate

students’ prior understanding of the math task(s).
 Provide cue cards of the strategy to aid memory,
posters on the wall, etc.
 Provide rapid-fire-verbal-rehearsal (randomly call
on students, increase pace of questioning students).
57
Example: CAP Strategy (for Abstract Application)
C = Combine like terms

A = Ask yourself, “ How can I isolate the variable?”
P = Put the value of the variable in the initial equation, and
check if the equation is “balanced”
Solve: 3a + 2a + 5 = 20
C = 5a + 5 = 20
A: “To isolate the variable, I need to subtract 5 from both
sides” 5a + 5 - 5 = 20 - 5; 5a = 15; a = 3.
P: 5(3) + 5 = 20; 20 = 20 Yes, it checks.
58
STAR Strategy Steps and Sub-steps
59
Instructional Strategy Steps
Step 1: Provide an Advance Organizer

Provide an advance organizer to: a) connect
new information to previously learned skills,
b) state the new skill to-be-learned, and c)
provide the rationale introducing the new
topic.
60
Step 2: Provide Teacher Modeling

Provide teacher “modeling” via two methods.
First, “think aloud” to students while
introducing a strategy. Then, fade teacher
prompts while involving students in application
of the strategy. For example, following the
teacher model, students answer questions and
write down their responses using the graphic
organizers or structured worksheets.
61
Step 3: Provide Guided Practice
Provide opportunities for students to practice the
new strategy with teacher assistance. Fade
teacher assistance until students can perform the
task independently.
62
Instructional Strategy Steps:
Step 4: Provide Student Independent Practice
Assess student mastery of the skills by
providing problems without teacher
prompts/assistance.
Step 5: Provide Feedback

Provide positive and corrective feedback
throughout the lesson via five steps:
a) document student performance (e.g., calculate
the percent correct)
b) target error patterns/incorrect answers
63
c) reteach if necessary
d) provide student practice with similar
problems and monitor student performance
e) close with positive feedback
Step 6: Program for Generalization

Provide prompts or questions to promote
generalization to other:
a) problem solving situations
b) content areas
c) real-world situations 64
Structured Worksheets/Prompt Cards, and
Graphic Organizers
Structured worksheets, prompt cards, and graphic

organizers with the strategy steps are used as visual
prompts and organizers for students to use as they
solve problems (until they can recall the steps
without the card).
65
 Provide teacher modeling of the self-questions that

are on the structured worksheets/prompt cards.
 Have students practice the self-questions while
solving problems. Provide corrective and positive
feedback and fade assistance.
Refer to the “Growing Patterns”, “Structured
Worksheet” for examples of activities
66

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Effective Instructional Strategies for

Correctional Education Programs

Mike Krezmien, M.A.

 Standards-driven reform is the primary

 Prompted by the public dissatisfaction

 Assuring all students achieve in math is a

 Recent legislation has assisted these efforts

 Central to this notion of reform is the

 These students have historically been provided a

 Some states require students to pass

 Web based instruction (WBI)

 Technology-based instructional approaches

Gersten, & Carnine, 1990)

 Embedding problem solving information

when presented with a real-life problem

 Anchored instruction is one such example of

 Students with special needs may need

 Cooperative learning strategies (Bottge et

 It is effective to use videodisc-based

 Incorporate effective instructional design

 Discrimination: Skills are introduced, practiced,

 Explicit Strategy Teaching: Students provided

 One example of a series that uses technology,

computers be available to students with LD

 Each adventure is designed from the

 Each adventure provides multiple opportunities

 The adventures are designed like detective

 Jasper adventures also contain "embedded

 The Jasper series is currently being used in

 Research is needed to fully realize the

 Limitations to the use of technology:

determined significant treatment effects,

 Further, of the articles that obtained significant

 The generalizability of the findings may also be

 In one study, calculator use was the most

 Consistent with Etlinger and Ogletree (1982),

 The "practical" function: The use of

 The "pedagogical" function: Relates to

 Teachers noted, Daily use of calculators to

 The pedagogical function coincides with two

including estimation, computation,

 To experiment with math ideas and

 Teachers noted using calculators as an aid

attempting to solve problems

 Students use calculators to help solve

 Calculators can be used to enhance learning

 Students use calculators or graphing

 Salend and Hoffstetter (1996) assert the

 Using an overhead projector to teach this

 Students should be provided opportunities to

 Another important category of teacher

 I do extensive work with students on how to

 I use an overhead calculator to assist with

 Based on teacher responses, the literature,

4. Remain current with state-of-the-art

Research: Why teach for meaning?

 finding logical relationships/making logical