Radiation & Radioactivity and Half life

…a little bit of history…

…1808 …1897

…1924
Solid Sphere Model or Plum Pudding Model or
Billiard Ball Model Raisin Bun Model
proposed by John Dalton proposed by J.J. Thomson

…1909 …1913

Electron Cloud Model or

Planetary Model or Bohr Model or Quantum Mechanical Model
Nuclear Model Orbit Model proposed by Louis de Broglie
proposed by E. Rutherford proposed by Neils Bohr & Erwin Schrodinger
The Bohr’s atomic model consists of a central nucleus composed of neutrons and protons,
which is surrounded by electrons which “orbit” around the nucleus. By means of Quantum
Mechanical Model, proposed by Louis de Broglie and Erwin Schrodinger, the Electron
Cloud has been postulated.
Protons carry a positive charge, Neutrons are electrically “neutral”, Electrons carry a
negative charge. Atoms in nature are electrically neutral so the number of electrons orbiting
the nucleus equals the number of protons in the nucleus.
Without neutrons, the nucleus would split apart because the positive protons would repel
each other. Elements can have nucleii with different numbers of neutrons in them.
For example hydrogen, which normally only has one proton in the nucleus, can have a
neutron added to its nucleus to from deuterium, or have two neutrons added to create
tritium, which is radioactive. Atoms of the same element which vary in neutron
number are called isotopes.
Radiation
is energy in transit in the form of high speed particles and electromagnetic
waves.

Ionizing radiation
is radiation with enough energy so that during an interaction with an atom, it
can remove tightly bound electrons from their orbits, causing the atom to
become charged or ionized (examples: gamma rays, neutrons)

Non-ionizing radiation
is radiation without enough energy to to separate molecules or remove
electrons from atoms. Examples are visible light, radio and television waves,
ultra violet (UV), and microwaves with a large spectrum of energies.
Energy Scale

The energy scale used by most nuclear scientists is electron volts

(eV), thousands of electron volts (keV), and millions of electron
volts (MeV). An electron volt is the energy acquired when an
electron falls through a potential difference of 1 volt. 1
eV=1.602*1012ergs. Masses are also given by their "mass-
equivalent" energy (E=mc2). The mass of the proton is 938.27231
MeV.

E=mc2

Where: e is energy, m is mass, and c is the speed of light.

Einstein's famous equation describes how energy and mass are
related. In our animated decays, mass is lost. That mass is
converted into energy in the form of electromagnetic waves.
Because the speed of light is so great, a little matter can transform
Common Types of Radiation

Alphas
An alpha is a particle emitted from the nucleus of an atom, that contains 2 protons and 2 neutrons.
It is identical to the nucleus of a Helium atom, without the electrons.

Betas
A beta is a high speed particle, identical to an electron, that is emitted from the nucleus of an atom

Gamma Rays
Gamma rays are electromagnetic waves / photons emitted from the nucleus (center) of an atom.

X rays
X Rays are electromagnetic waves / photons emitted not from the nucleus, but normally emitted
by energy changes in electrons. These energy changes are either in electron orbital shells that
surround an atom or in the process of slowing down such as in an X-ray machine.

Neutrons
Neutrons are neutral particles that are normally contained in the nucleus of all atoms and may be
removed by various interactions or processes like collision and fission
Alpha decay is a radioactive process in which a particle with two neutrons and two protons is
ejected from the nucleus of a radioactive atom. The particle is identical to the nucleus of a helium
atom.
Alpha decay only occurs in very heavy elements such as uranium, thorium and radium. The
nuclei of these atoms are very “neutron rich” (i.e. have a lot more neutrons in their nucleus than
they do protons) which makes emission of the alpha particle possible.
After an atom ejects an alpha particle, a new parent atom is formed which has two less neutrons and two less protons. Thus, when
uranium-238 (which has a Z of 92) decays by alpha emission, thorium-234 is created (which has a Z of 90).

Because alpha particles contain two protons, they have a positive charge of two. Further, alpha
particles are very heavy and very energetic compared to other common types of radiation. Typical
alpha particles will travel no more than a few centimeters in air and are stopped by a sheet of
paper.
Beta decay is a radioactive process in which an electron is emitted from the nucleus of a
radioactive atom, along with an unusual particle called an antineutrino (almost massless particle that
carries away some of the energy).
Like alpha decay, beta decay occurs in isotopes which are “neutron rich” .
When a nucleus ejects a beta particle, one of the neutrons in the nucleus is transformed into a
proton.

Since the number of protons in the nucleus has changed, a new daughter atom is formed which has one less neutron but one more
proton than the parent. For example, when rhenium-187 decays (which has a Z of 75) by beta decay, osmium-187 is created (which has
a Z of 76).

Beta particles have a single negative charge and weigh only a small fraction of a neutron or proton.
As a result, beta particles interact less readily with material than alpha particles. Beta particles will
travel up to several meters in air, and are stopped by thin layers of metal or plastic.
Gamma decay
After a decay reaction, the nucleus is often in an
“excited” state. This means that the decay has
resulted in producing a nucleus which still has
excess energy to get rid of. Rather than emitting
another beta or alpha particle, this energy is lost
by emitting a pulse of electromagnetic
radiation called a gamma ray. The gamma ray
is identical in nature to light or microwaves,
but of very high energy.
Like all forms of electromagnetic radiation, the
gamma ray has no mass and no charge. Gamma
rays interact with material by colliding with the
electrons in the shells of atoms. They lose their
energy slowly in material, being able to travel
significant distances before stopping. Depending
on their initial energy, gamma rays can travel
from 1 to hundreds of meters in air and can
easily go right through people.
It is important to note that most alpha and
beta emitters also emit gamma rays as part of
their decay process. However, there is no such
thing as a “pure” gamma emitter.
Over a century ago in 1895, Roentgen discovered the first example of ionizing radiation, x-rays.
Device: a glass envelope under high vacuum, with a wire element at one end forming the cathode, and a
heavy copper target at the other end forming the anode. When a high voltage was applied to the electrodes,
electrons formed at the cathode would be pulled towards the anode and strike the copper with very high
energy. Roentgen discovered that very penetrating radiations were produced from the anode, which he
called x-rays.

X-ray production whenever electrons of high energy strike a heavy metal target, like tungsten or
copper. When electrons hit this material, some of the electrons will approach the nucleus of the metal
atoms where they are deflected because of there opposite charges (electrons are negative and the nucleus
is positive, so the electrons are attracted to the nucleus). This deflection causes the energy of the electron to
decrease, and this decrease in energy then results in forming an x-ray.
 Making X-rays

Where do x-rays come from?

An x-ray machine, like that used in a doctor's or a
dentist's office, is really very simple. Inside the
machine is an x-ray tube. An electron gun inside the
tube shoots high energy electrons at a target made of
heavy atoms, such as tungsten. X-rays come out
because of atomic processes induced by the energetic
electrons shot at the target.
Properties of Radiation

Alpha particles are heavy and doubly charged

which cause them to lose their energy very
quickly in matter. They can be shielded by a
sheet of paper or the surface layer of our skin.
Alpha particles are considered hazardous only to
a persons health if an alpha emitting material
is inhaled.

Beta particles are much smaller and only have

one charge, which cause them to interact more
slowly with material. They are effectively
shielded by thin layers of metal or plastic and are
again considered hazardous only if a beta
emitter is ingested or inhaled.

Gamma emitters are associated with alpha, beta, and positron decay. X-Rays are produced either when
electrons change orbits within an atom, or electrons from an external source are deflected around the nucleus
of an atom. Both are forms of high energy electromagnetic radiation which interact lightly with matter. X-
rays and gamma rays are best shielded by thick layers of lead or other dense material and are hazardous to
people when they are external to the body.

Neutrons are neutral particles with approximately the same mass as a proton. Because they are neutral they
react only weakly with material. They are an external hazard best shielded by thick layers of concrete.
 Rate of Decay
Beyond knowing the types of particles which are emitted
when an isotope decays, we also are interested in how frequently
one of the atoms emits this radiation.

 A very important point here is that we cannot predict when a

particular entity will decay.

 We do know though, that if we had a large sample of a radioactive

substance, some number will decay after a given amount of time.

 Some radioactive substances have a very high “rate of decay”,

while others have a very low decay rate.

 To differentiate different radioactive substances, we look to

quantify this idea of “decay rate”
 Half-Life
 The “half-life” (h) is the time it takes for half the atoms of a
radioactive substance to decay.

 For example, suppose we had 20,000 atoms of a radioactive

substance. If the half-life is 1 hour, how many atoms of that
substance would be left after:

#atoms % of atoms
Time
remaining remaining

1 hour (one lifetime) ? 10,000 (50%)

2 hours (two lifetimes) ? 5,000 (25%)

3 hours (three lifetimes) ? 2,500 (12.5%)

 Lifetime (t)
The “lifetime” of a particle is an alternate definition of
the rate of decay, one which we prefer.

It is just another way of expressing how fast the substance

decays..

It is simply: 1.44 x h, and one often associates the

letter “t” to it.

The lifetime of a “free” neutron is 14.7 minutes

{t (neutron)=14.7 min.}

Let’s use this a bit to become comfortable with it…

 Lifetime (I)
 The lifetime of a free neutron is 14.7 minutes.

 If I had 1000 free neutrons in a box, after 14.7

minutes some number of them will have decayed.

 The number remaining after some time is given by the

radioactive decay law
N0 = starting number of
t /t
N  N0e particles
t = particle’s lifetime

This is the “exponential”. It’s

value is 2.718, and is a very useful
number. Can you find it on your
calculator?
 Lifetime (II)
t /t
Note by slight rearrangement of this formula: N  N0e
Fraction of particles which did not decay: N / N0 = e-t/t
1.20

# Time Fraction of
1.00
lifetimes (min) remaining

Fraction Survived
neutrons 0.80

0t 0 1.0 0.60

1t 14.7 0.368 0.40

2t 29.4 0.135 0.20

3t 44.1 0.050 0.00

0 2 4 6 8 10

Lifetimes
4t 58.8 0.018
5t 73.5 0.007 After 4-5 lifetimes, almost all of the
unstable particles have decayed away!
 Lifetime (III)
 Not all particles have the same lifetime.

 Uranium-238 has a lifetime of about 6 billion

(6x109) years !

 Some subatomic particles have lifetimes that are

less than 1x10-12 sec !

 Given a batch of unstable particles, we cannot

say which one will decay.

 The process of decay is statistical. That is, we can

only talk about either,
1) the lifetime of a radioactive substance*, or
2) the “probability” that a given particle will decay.
 Lifetime (IV)
 Given a batch of 1 species of particles, some will decay
within 1 lifetime (1t), some within 2t, some within 3t, and
so on…

 We CANNOT say “Particle 44 will decay at t =22 min”.

You just can’t !

 All we can say is that:

 After 1 lifetime, there will be (37%) remaining
 After 2 lifetimes, there will be (14%) remaining
 After 3 lifetimes, there will be (5%) remaining
 After 4 lifetimes, there will be (2%) remaining, etc
 Lifetime (V)

 If the particle’s lifetime is very short, the particles

decay away very quickly.

 When we get to subatomic particles, the lifetimes

are typically only a small fraction of a second!

 If the lifetime is long (like 238U) it will hang around

for a very long time!
 Lifetime (IV)
What if we only have 1 particle before us? What can we say
about it?

Survival Probability = N / N0 = e-t/t

Decay Probability = 1.0 – (Survival Probability)
# lifetimes Survival Probability Decay Probability =
(percent) 1.0 – Survival Probability
(Percent)
1 37% 63%
2 14% 86%
3 5% 95%
4 2% 98%
5 0.7% 99.3%
Half-life is the time required for the quantity of a radioactive material to be reduced to one-half its
original value.
All radionuclides have a particular half-life, some of which a very long, while other are extremely short.
For example, uranium-238 has such a long half life, 4.5x109 years, that only a small fraction has decayed
since the earth was formed. In contrast, carbon-11 has a half-life of only 20 minutes. Since this nuclide has
medical applications, it has to be created where it is being used so that enough will be present to conduct
medical studies.
When given a certain amount of radioactive material, it is customary to refer to the quantity based on its
activity rather than its mass. The activity is simply the number of disintegrations or transformations the
quantity of material undergoes in a given period of time.

The two most common units of activity are the Curie and the Becquerel.
The Curie is named after Pierre Curie for his and his wife Marie's discovery of radium. One Curie is equal
to 3.7x1010 disintegrations per second.
A newer unit of activity if the Becquerel named for Henry Becquerel who is credited with the discovery of
radioactivity. One Becquerel is equal to one disintegration per second.

It is obvious that the Curie is a very large amount of activity and the Becquerel is a very small amount. To
make discussion of common amounts of radioactivity more convenient, we often talk in terms of milli and
microCuries or kilo and MegaBecquerels.
Common Radiation Units – SI

Gray (Gy) - to measure absorbed dose ... the amount of energy actually absorbed in some
material, and is used for any type of radiation and any material (does not't describe the
biological effects of the different radiations)
Gy = J / kg (one joule of energy deposited in one kg of a material)

Sievert (Sv) - to derive equivalent dose ... the absorbed dose in human tissue to the effective
biological damage of the radiation
Sv = Gy x Q (Q = quality factor unique to the type of incident radiation)

Becquerel (Bq) - to measure a radioactivity … the quantity of a radioactive material that have 1
transformations /1s
Bq = one transformation per second, there are 3.7 x 1010 Bq in one curie.
__________________________________________________________________________________
Roentgen (R) - to measure exposure but only to describe for gamma and X-rays, and only in air.
R = depositing in dry air enough energy to cause 2.58E-4 coulombs per kg

Rad (radiation absorbed dose) - to measure absorbed dose

Rem (roentgen equivalent man) - to derive equivalent dose related the absorbed dose in
human tissue to the effective biological damage of the radiation.

Curie (Ci) - to measure radioactivity. One curie is that quantity of a radioactive material that
will have 37,000,000,000 transformations in one second. 3.7 x 10 10 Bq
Terms Related to Radiation Dose

Chronic dose … means a person received a radiation dose over a long period of time.

Acute dose … means a person received a radiation dose over a short period of time.

Somatic effects … are effects from some agent, like radiation that are seen in the individual who receives
the agent.

Genetic effects … are effects from some agent, that are seen in the offspring of the individual who
received the agent. The agent must be encountered pre-conception.

Teratogenic effects … are effects from some agent, that are seen in the offspring of the individual who
received the agent. The agent must be encountered during the gestation period.

Stochastic effects … are effects that occur on a random basis with its effect being independent of the size
of dose. The effect typically has no threshold and is based on probabilities, with the chances of seeing the
effect increasing with dose. Cancer is a stochastic effect.

Non-stochastic effect … are effects that can be related directly to the dose received. The effect is more
severe with a higher dose, i.e., the burn gets worse as dose increases. It typically has a threshold, below
which the effect will not occur. A skin burn from radiation is a non-stochastic effect.
Thank you for your attention