BASIC WELDING

•Solids +Solid welding(Solid State

bonding)
•Liquid +Liquid Welding (Fusion Welding)
•Solid+ Liquid Welding (Brazing)
•Welding is joining of two metal pieces.
•3 types of joining processes is possible
depending on conditions of parent
material.
 CLASSIFICATION
Based on the Energy Sources :
1. Chemical Energy:
A) Gas welding (Oxy-Acetilene)
B) Thermit Welding (Reaction of chemicals)
C) Atomic Hydrogen Welding
2. Electrical energy:
a) Electric arc
i) Carbon Arc Welding
ii) Shielded Metal Arc Welding
iii) Gas Metal Arc Welding
 POLARITY
• Covered electrodes operate
better in Reverse Polarity
• Reverse Polarity produces
deeper penetration but
straight polarity produces a
higher electrode melting
rates.
 Characteristics of Direct Current:
1. Easy to maintain a short arc
2. Highly susceptible to arc blow
3. Easier to use for out of position welding
4. Low thickness sheets can be easily welded
without burn-through
5. Voltage drop in cables is more as compared
to AC
6. DC is more suitable for low welding current
7. All classes of electrodes can be used with
DC
8. Easier arc starting than AC
 Characteristics of Alternating Current:
1. Arc blow is almost nil
2. More weld spatter due to the pulsating
nature of AC
3. Because of difficulty in arc starting
welding of low thickness sheet is difficult
4. Since arc blow is not a problem large
diameter electrodes can be used. Thicker
sections are thus preferably welded with
AC
 FUNCTIONS OF FLUX COATINGS
Sl. No Typical Functions Constituents of Coating

1 Arc Stabilizers Potassium Oxalate(K2O3)

Zirconium, Carbonate, Ti O2,
CaCO3, Lithium Carbonate
2 Slag Formers (or) Rutile Marble
Slag Producers Kaoline
Graphite
Titania
Asbestos, FeO,MnO
3 Gas Forming Cellulose, Wood Flour, Lime
matter stone, Flour starch, CO2, CO-H2
and some other organic
substances
4 De-oxidizers Ferro Si, Ferro Mn, Ferro Cr,
Ferro Mo, Electro Ni, Electro Mg

5 Slipping Agents Glycerin, China Clay, Tale,

Bentonite Clay
TYPE OF COATING AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

Sl. Cellulose Rutile Basic or Iron

No Low Hz Powder or
Deep
Penetration
1 Main Saw dust and Silicates Coat Fe O
Constituent wood flour negligible fluoride
of Flux cellulose
2 AC / DC DC only AC / DC No DC +
cellulose
3 Slag Little & Quick Medium and DC + Liquid
Freezing Slightly liquid
4 Spatter High Negligible Heavy + Medium
Slightly
liquid
5 Slag Removal Difficult Very Easy Negligible Easy
 FLUX INGREDIENTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
No. Constituents of flux Primary function Secondary function
1 Cellulose Shielding
2 Calcium Carbonate Shielding Fluxing Agent
3 Fluospar Slag Former Fluxing Agent
4 Dolomite Shielding gas Fluxing Agent
5 Titanium-Di-Oxide (Rutile) Slag Former Arc Stabilizer
6 Potassium Titanate Arc Stabilizer Slag Former
7 Felspar Slag Former Stabilizer
8 Mica Extrusion Stabilizer
9 Clay Extrusion Slag Former
10 Silica Slag Former
11 Asbestos Slag Former Extrusion
12 Manganese Dioxide Slag Former Alloying
13 Iron Oxide Slag Former
14 Iron Powder Deposition Rate Contact Welding
15 Ferro-silicon Deoxidizer
16 Ferro-Manganese Alloying Deoxidizing
17 Sodium silicate Binder Fluxing Agent
 Applications of various welding processes
PROCESS APPLICATION ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
a) Manual Arc Most widely used 1. Very versatile 1. Low deposition
Welding process in all fields of 2. Less Complex efficiency
welding industries Equipment 2. Welding has to be
3. Less Complex stopped after
4. More Portable each length is
finished
5. Less Costly
3. Deslaging is
6. Can be done indoors required after
and outdoors every rod
7. Joints in any 4. High skill and
position can be concentration of
reached walder is
8. Joints in any required
location can be 5. Low deposition
welded rates
9. Easy availability of
electrodes for any
materials and no
other consumables
are required
10. High quality joints
can be obtained
b) TIG Welding Can be used for 1. Can be used 1. Low melting
welding most metals to produce alloys like
and alloys continuous, zinc etc. are
skip and spot different to be
welds welded
2. Filler metal 2. Difficulty in
may or may getting
not be used equipment
3. Adaptable for 3. Difficult in
all position getting
welding welding
4. Easy for use quality argon
in thin wall 4. Possibilities of
welding tungsten
5. No slag contamination
formation
6. High heat
concentration
and lesser
HAZ
c) Submerged arc 1. For joining 1. Needs lesser 1. Requires flux
welding carbon steel, metal handling
low alloy deposition equipment
steel, stainless due to higher 2. Work holding
steels etc. penetration fixtures
2. For surfacing and narrower 3. Joints require
3. For thick groove use of backing
pressure 2. No eye plates, strips
vessels, built protection is or rings
up beams, needed and 4. Flux
nipple less heat contamination
welding etc. radiation may produce
3. High speeds porosity
and rates of 5. Weld surface
deposition are cleanliness is
possible very essential
4. Less 6. Deslaging
expensive problems
consumables
5. Easy
operation
d) Flash Butt 1. Any metal that can 1. High quality 1. It has
Welding be forged can be welds can be undesirable
flash welded obtained operation of
2. It can be used for 2. Weld metal flashing
joining similar and sometimes which makes
dissimilar metals in shows strength it difficult to
many different higher than protect the
cross sectional the base metal machine
shapes 3. No filler metal moving parts
3. It can maintain is required 2. Presents fire
high accuracy in 4. Repeatability hazards
length and and reliability 3. Needs flash
alignment can be easily removal
4. Generally used for obtained 4. There is loss
joining of rods, 5. Do not require of metal due
pipes, tubes, rails, higher to flashing
wires, automotive complicated 5. Requires
parts, band saw edge special and
blades, tool steels, preparation costly dies
drills, tap&reamer 6. High for welding
bodies to CS an AS productivity
shanks
 WELD SYMBOLS
Special Drawing Symbol
Instruct Representatons
ions

Weld All O
around

Site
Weld or
Field
Weld
 WELD SYMBOLS (Contd.)
Flush Contour

Convex
Contour

Concave
Contour
 WELD SYMBOLS (Contd.)
Machining M M
Finish

Grinding G G
Finish

Chipping C
Finish C
WELDS TO BE MADE ON THE OTHER SIDE OF A JOINT:
WELDS TO BE MADE ON THE BOTH SIDES OF A JOINT:
WELDS TO BE MADE ON THE ARROW SIDE OF A JOINT:
 WELDS TO BE MADE ON THE ARROW SIDE OF A
JOINT:
Arrow connecting
reference line to arrow
side of joint
BASIC WELD
SYMBOL

FIELD WELD
Weld All SYMBOL
Around
Symbol

SIZE -S Length of weld - L

Reference
Line
 WELD SYMBOLS (Contd.)
FORM OF SECTIONAL REPRESENTATION SYMBOL
WELD

FILLET

SQUARE
BUTT

SINGLE V-
BUTT

DOUBLE –V
BUTT
 WELD SYMBOLS (Contd.)
FORM OF SECTIONAL REPRESENTATION SYMBOL
WELD
Single
Bevel
Butt
Joint

Double
Bevel
Butt
Joint
 WELD SYMBOLS (Contd.)
FORM OF SECTIONAL REPRESENTATION SYMBOL
WELD
BEAD
(Edge
or
Seal)
Sealing
Run

STUD
 PRE-HEATING:
Pre-heating is necessary because
of the following reasons :
a) To avoid distortion
b) To avoid crack formation due to internal
stresses exceeding the yield strength of the
material
c) Pre-heat drives of moisture and
grease etc. which is harmful if
present during welding
d) To minimize the internal stresses due to
harden ability of the steel and rate of cooling
(due to heavy mass and temperature difference)
 Minimum Preheat temp. for TIG roots oC
TYPE OF STEEL

<127 mm dia & < 12.5 >127 mm & > 12.5 mmthk.
mm thk.

C and C- Mn(<0.25C)
----- > 30mm thk. 100

C and C- Mn 50
100
(> 0.25 < 0.4 C)

------
C-Mo > 12.5 mm thk. 100

------
1 Cr ½ Mo 100
1 1/4 Cr ½ Mo

½ Cr ½ Mo 50 100
¼V

2 ¼ Cr 1 Mo 50 100

5Cr1/2 Mo
150 150
7Cr ½ Mo
9 Cr ½ Mo
12 Cr Mo V(W)
150
150
 Shield Metal Arc Welding
Hydrogen Controlled weld Non- Hydrogen Controlled weld

> 30mm thk. 100 > 20mm thk.100

150

>12.5 mmthk.100 200

<38 mm 150

<12.5 mm 100
<12.5 mm 150

>12.5 mm 150 >12.5 mm <20 mm 200

<12.5 mm 150 Only low H2 electrode to be used

>12.5 mm 200

<12.5 mm 150
< 12.5 mm 200
>12.5 mm 200 > 12.5 mm not allowed only low H2

200
Only low H2 electrode to be used

150
Only low H2 electrode to be used
 TYPE OF STEEL Hydrogen
Controlled weld
C and C- Mn(<0.25C) > 30mm thk. > 20mm thk.
100 100

C and C- Mn(> 0.25 < 150

0.4 C) 200
C-Mo >12.5 mmthk <38 mm
100 150
1 Cr ½ Mo <12.5 mm 100 <12.5 mm
1 1/4 Cr ½ Mo >12.5 mm 150 150
>12.5 mm
<20 mm
200
INTER PASS TEMPERATURE

• The interpass temperature

control is

• To avoid overheating of the

weldment especially in welding
quenched and tempered steel.
 POST HEATING:
Maintaining the welded area above the pre-heat
temperature for a longer period after welding is
called “POST HEATING’

Post heating helps to reduce the stresses below

the danger limit.

Post-heating enables to attain comparatively

soften H A Z.

This is carried out in the following cases:

a) Where a heavy welding is carried out in a

localized area when the stress will be enormously
high cracks. (Eg.- Full throat nozzle welding in
Pressure vessel)

b) Welding of high alloy steels, which forms heat

affected zones with high hardness.
 POST WELD HEAT TREATMENT:
Post weld heat treatment provides:
a) Relieving of residual stresses
b) More ductility in the weld
metal and lowering of hardness
c) Improved resistance to corrosion
and caustic embrittlement
d) Improve dimensional stability
 Suffix letter X stands
American Welding Society: Coding is given for suffixes A1, B1,
to Electrode as per AWS A 5.1 and A 5.5 B2, B3, C1, C2, C3,
EXAMPLE
D1, D2, G, M etc and
designates the
E 7 0 1 8 ---- X
chemical
composition of the
deposited weld
Minimum material
Electrode
suitable Tensile strength Type of covering and current conditions
for arc of deposited 0 – High Cellulose Sodium DC reverse
welding metal x 1000 psi polarity
1 - High cellulose potassium AC or DC
Welding Position reverse polarity
1 – F, V, OH, H 2 – High titanium sodium AC or DC straight
2 – F, H fillets Polarity
F – Flat 3 - High titanium potassium AC or DC
H-Horizontal either polarity
V-Vertical 4 - Iron powder titanium AC or DC either
OH - Overhead polarity
NOTE :
5 – Low hydrogen sodium DC reverse
IF LAST TWO DIGITS ARE 10: Cellulose type polarity
covering and DC Reverse polarity 6- Low hydrogen potassium AC or DC
IF LAST TWO DIGITS reverse polarity
ARE 20: High Iron oxide type covering and 8- Low hydrogen iron powder AC or DC
AC and DC straight polarity
reverse polarity
 IRON POWDER ELECTRODE
• To achieve maximum productivity / to reduce welding
cost
• Iron powder electrode have high deposition efficiency
• These electrodes contain an appreciable quantity of
metal powder in the coating, such that the resulting
deposit is more than that of the core wire melted
• DEPOSITION DEFICIENCY is defined as the ratio of the
weight of deposited metal to the net weight of the
electrodes consumed exclusive of stub ends
• Deposition efficiency of the iron powder electrode varies
from 102 % to as high as 200 %
ASME SEC II
PART C SFA No.
Description

5.1 Carbon steel electrodes for shielded metal arc welding

5.2 Carbon and low alloy steel rods for oxi fuel gas welding

5.3 Aluminium and aluminium alloy electrodes for SMAW

5.4 Covered corrosion resisting chromium and chromium nickel steels welding
electrodes
5.5 Low alloy steel covered arc welding electrodes
5.6 Copper and copper alloy covered electrodes
5.7 Copper and copper alloy bear welding rods and electrodes

5.8 Basing filler metal

5.12 Tungsten arc welding electrodes
5.13 Solid surfacing welding rods and electrodes
5.15 Welding electrodes and rods for cast iron
5.17 Carbon steel electrodes and fluxes for SAW
5.20 Carbon steel electrodes for flux code welding
5.23 Low alloy steel electrodes and fluxes for SAW
5.27 Copper and copper alloy gas welding rods
5.28 Low alloy steel filler metals
5.30 Consumable inserts
 TYPE AWS
CLASSIFICATION
C 0.5 % Mo E7018 A1

0.5Cr-0.5 Mo E 8018 B1
1.0Cr-0.5Mo E 8018 B2
1.25 Cr-0.5 Mo E 8018 B2

2.25Cr- 1.0 Mo E 9018 B3

0.5Cr-0.5 Mo-0.3V E 9018 B3

 TYPE TUBES PIPES PLATES
C 0.5 % Mo A209 T1 A335P1 A204 Gr A,B,C

0.5Cr-0.5 Mo A213 T2 A335-P2 A 387 Gr 2

A369-FP2
A426-CP2
1.0Cr-0.5Mo A213 T12 A335-P12 A 387 Gr12
A369-FP12
A426-CP12
1.25 Cr-0.5 A199-T11 A335-P11 A 387 Gr11
Mo A200 T11 A369-FP11
A213 T11 A426-CP11
2.25Cr- 1.0 Mo A199-T22 A335-P22 A 387 Gr22
A200 T22 A369-FP22 A542
A213 T22 A426-CP22
WELDMENT DEFECTS :
• According to Drawing and
dimensional requirements
• According to Structural
Discontinuities inside weld
• According to properties of weld
metal or welded joint
 STRUCTURAL
DISCONTINUITIES INSIDE WELD:
• POROSITY
• SLAG INCLUSION
• TUNGSTEN INCLUSION
• INCOMPLETE FUSION
• INADEQUATE JOINT
PREPARATION
• UNDER CUT
• CRACKS
• SURFACE IRREGULARITIES
WELD DISCONTINUTIES

UNDERFIL

CRACK
INCLUSIONS

PARENT
METAL

INCOMPLETE
PENETRATION
POROSITY
UNDERCUT
OVERLAP

LACK OF FUSION
INCOMPLETE FUSION

INCOMPLETE
INCOMPLETE FUSION /OXIDE
FUSION/OXIDE LAYERLAYER
 FILLET WELDING

WELD

BASE METAL
B

INCMPLETE FUSION IN FILLET WELDS.B IS

OFTENTERMED ‘BRIDGING’
APPEARANCE OF GOOD WELD
 SEE

WELD DEFECTS
RADIO GRAPHIC
VIEWS
WELDING INSPECTION DURING
WELDING
 Welding process
 Cleaning
 Preheat and Interpass temperature
 Joint preparation
 Filler metal
 Flux or shielding gas
 Chipping, grinding or
gouging
 Distortion control
 Post- heating temperature
and time
WELDING INSPECTION AFTER WELDING

 Dimensional accuracy of the weldment

 Conformity to drawing requirements

 Acceptability of weldments with regard to the

appearance

 The presence of unfilled craters,undercuts

Overlaps and cracks

 Evidence of mishandling from punching or

other inspectional markings or excessive
grinding.
DRAWING AND DIMENSIONAL
REQUIREMENTS:
 WARPAGE
 INCORRECT JOINT
PREPARATION
 INCORRECT WELD SIZE
 INCORRECT WELD
PROFILE
 CAUSES & REMEDIES FOR POROSITY IN WELDS

Sl.No. Causes Remedies

i) Use low hydrogen

1 electrodes
Excessive N2,H2, or O2 in Welding
atmosphere ii) Increase shielding gas flow
2
High solidification rate Use preheat

3 Dirty base metal Clean joint faces and adjacent

surfaces
4
Dirty filler wire Clean with emery

5 Change welding conditions

Improper arc length, welding current or
electrode manipulation
Galvanization of steel Use E6010 electrode and
6 manipulate the arc heat to
volatize the zinc ahead of the
molten weld pool.
Excessive moisture in the electrode covering or Use recommended procedures for
7 on the joint surfaces baking and storing of electrodes
Preheat the base metal

8 High sulphur base metal Use proper welding electrodes

 CAUSES & REMEDIES FOR SLAG INCLUSIONS IN
WELDS
Sl.No. Causes Remedies

1 Failure to remove slag Clean surface and

previous weld beads

2 Improper joint design Increase groove angle of

joint

3 Oxide inclusions Provide proper gas

shielding

Slag flooding ahead of the welding arc Reposition the work to

4 prevent the loss of slag
control

5 Entrapped pieces of electrode covering Use undamaged electrodes

6 Poor electrode manipulating techniques Use Correct-welding

techniques.
CAUSES & REMEDIES FOR INCOMPLETE
FUSION IN WELDS
Causes Remedies
Sl.No.

Insufficient heat input , wrong type Follow correct wps

1 or size of electrode, improper joint
design or inadequate gas shielding

Incorrect electrode position Maintain proper electrode

2
position

Weld metal running ahead of the arc Reposition the work,

increase weld travel speed
3
or lower current

Entrapped oxides or slag in the weld Clean the surface prior to

4
groove welding
CAUSES & REMEDIES FOR CRACKING IN WELDS
Sl.No. Causes Remedies
Preheat
1
Highly rigid joint Relieve internal stresses mechanically
Minimize shrinkage stresses by
adopting back step welding

2 Change welding current and travel

Excessive dilution
speed Weld with covered electrode
negative

3 Change to new electrodes

Defective electrodes
Bake electrodes to remove
moisture

4
Poor fit up Correct- Joint Design

5 Increase electrode size,

Small weld bead
raise welding current,
reduce travel speed
6
High sulphur base metal Use filler metal with low sulfur

7
Angular distortion Change to balanced welding on both
sides of the welding joint.

Fill the crater before extinguishing

8
Crater cracking the arc
Use a welding current decay device
when terminating the weld bead
 CAUSES & REMEDIES FOR CRACKS IN HAZ IN WELDS

Sl.No. Causes Remedies

Hydrogen in welding Use low hydrogen welding process, preheat

1 atmosphere and hold for 2 hours after welding or post
weld heat treat immediately

2 Hot cracking Use low heat input, deposit thin layers,

change base metal

3 Low ductility
Use preheat and anneal the metal

High residual stresses Redesign the weldment, change welding

4 sequence, apply intermediate stress relief
heat treatment

Preheat and increase heat input heat treat

5 High harden ability
without cooling to room temperature

6 Brittle phases in the micro Solution treatment prior to welding

structure