Lecture two

Plant tissues: Structure & functions

 Plant cells to tissues
• Although multicellular, plants originate from one single
cell – zygote.
• As the plant mature, cells assumed completely
different shapes and perform specific functions
(specialized) through differentiation.
• Plant cells organize in groups which look similar (form
and functions) through different levels of organizations
> molecules > cells > tissues > organs > whole plant >
Atoms
pop.
•Plant body consists different organs made by
different types of tissues.
•Tissue is a mass of similar or dissimilar cells
performing a common functions

•In the higher plants, the plant body is somewhat

more complex in its cellular structure and hence
define areas for location of specific types of tissues
•They may be of the same origins, vegetative or
reproductive tissues
Growth in Plant Body
In the beginning of the development of the plant embryo, cell
division occurs throughout the development of the young
organism. But as soon as the embryo develops and converts
into an independent plant, the addition of new cells is gradually
restricted to certain parts of the plant body, while the other parts
of the plant remain concerned with activities other than growth.
This shows that the mature plant is a composite of adult and
juvenile tissues . These juvenile tissues are known as the
meristems .
The presence of the meristems remarkably differentiates the
plants from animals.

In the plants , the growth resulting from meristematic activity is

possible throughout the life of the organisms, whereas in the
animal body, the multiplication of the cells mostly ceases when
the organism attains adult size and the number of organs are
fixed.
Meristematic tissues are for plant Growth
Growth is the irreversible increase of cell number, and essentially its dry
mass. Thus growth of the plant body involves both cell division and
enlargement.
Synthesis of new living substance is a fundamental part of the process of
the formation of new cells by division . Meristems not only produce new
cells to the plant (when specialize) but also perpetuate themselves, that
is, some of the products of the division in the meristems do not develop
into adult cells but remain meristematic .
Thus Division of meristematic cell results in two sister cells:
Initial - the self perpetuating sister cell that remains in the
meristem.
Derivative - the other sister cell which moves into the
plant body.
Derivative cells may also continue to divide until they become differentiated
into specific types of cells, that is, they become different from each other
and from the original meristematic cells from which they originated.

At maturity differentiated/ permanent cells may be living or dead.

 Classification of Plant tissues
• All higher plant organs (roots, stems, leaves) are
composed of the same tissue types.
However based on functions and composition,
plants tissues can be grouped into 2 categories
- Stage of development:
• Meristematic tissues
• Permanent tissues
- Kind of constituent cells
• Simple tissues – have only one cell type
• Complex tissues – have more than one cell type
 Plant Tissues Types
These two major classes gives 4 types of tissue:

1. Meristematic tissues

2. Dermal – outermost layer

3. Vascular – conducting tissue, transport

4. Ground – bulk of inner layers

 Meristematic tissues
Tissues made up by Meristematic cells: are
undifferentiated cells, found in zones of the
plant where growth can take place
Meristematic cells give rise specialized tissues
to form various organs of the plant
Meristematic tissues is a source of all other
tissues to form primary plant body
There are of various types:
Revise characteristics, location and types of
meristems in lecture 1
 Classification of meristematic tissue
• Meristems are grouped according to different
criteria: Origin, position and angle of the cell
division plane
A. Based on their origin, Merist tissues are
Classified into 3 types: Promeristems, primary
meristems and secondary meristems
- 1. Initials (promeristems): A group of young
meristematic cells from which other advanced
meristems are derived, contains actively dividing,
undifferentiated, isodiametric thin-walled cells
- Found in the embryo, and later they divide
continuously within the shoot tip and the root tip
2. Primary meristems: Tissues made by daughter cells produced by the
division of the promeritematic cells (or histogens)

• Cells in Primary meristems are differentiated than those in

Promeristems
• Function: give rise to the primary permanent tissue systems

• 3 types of primary meristems:

- the dermatogen (or protoderm) – single outermost layer of cell made
the epidermis covering all plant body

- the ground meristem/periblem giving rise to the ground tissue system

lying internal to demartogen, (in dicot diffrentiate into hypodermis,
cotex and endodermis

- the Plerome/ procambium that cuts give the primary vascular tissues
(bundle). Part of plerome differentiated into pericycle, medullary rays
and and pith. However part of the ploreme remain undifferentiated and
form fascicular cambium = cambium of vascular bundle
Shoot Apical Meristem
 Root Apical Meristem

1. Root cap
initials
2. Protoderm
3. Ground
meristem
4. Procambium
5. Root cap
Composition of Primary Vascular tissue
• Primary xylem composed of protoxylem (first
formed primary xylem, has small diameter,
mature before the plant organs has completed
their elongation) and metaxylem (later
formed primary xylem, large diameter,
mature after the plant organs has completed
their elongation)
• Primary phloem composed of protophloem
and metaphloem
 Differentiation of primary vascular system
• Differentiation in plants refers to the processes by
which distinct cell types arise from precursor cells
and become different from each other.

• It generally proceeds acropetally

• Primary phloem(protophloem) differentiate (become
functional) earlier and become closer to AM than
Primary xylem? Why
• Primary xylem different later than Pri Phloem in both
acropetal and basipetal in directions

• Differentiation of primary vascular tissues is

controlled by auxin
3. Secondary meristems: arise by the
dedifferentiation of primary tissue cells
• They includes
- the vascular cambium responsible for the
secondary thickening of the plant organs and
- the cork cambium (phellogen) producing the
periderm (secondary dermal tissue).
- B. Classification of meristematic tissues based
on location are of 3 types includes
 Apical meristematic tissues, lateral meristematic
tissues and Intercallary mersistematic tissues
C. Classification of meristems based into the
angle of the cell division planes

- This classification applied to the shoot tip

only, and not for the root tip

- The apical zone of the shoot is divided into the

regions of the tunica and the corpus
 Organisation of shoot apex
3 theories exists:

1. Apical cell theory

2. Histogen theory

3. Tunica – corpus theory

Apical Cell Theory (1858) states that: There is a single
solitary cell found in cryptogams to form the growing
point and it was supposed that similar condition exists in
higher plants too.
• However the presence of complex growing apices in
higher plants cannot be explained by this theory.
Histogen theory (1868) states that:
• A plant shoot apex is into various zones each consists a
group of initial cells called Histogen or a tissue builder.
• The major histogens of the stem and roots are
(a) the dermatogen, a meristematic external layer - gives
rise to the epidermis
(b) the plerome, a central core – give rise to the primary
vascular bundles
(c) the periblem, the region between the two - develops
into the cortex
Tunica Corpus theory (1924) states that
• the shoot apex can be differentiated into two
regions of unlike structure and appearance.
1. the corpus: central core, with large cells dividing
irregularly to result in volume growth.

- Cell are large and divide both anticlinally and

periclinally, thus they are easily discernible from
those of the tunica.
 Theories….
Tunica: is the outer envelop layer of growing tip
surrounding the corpus.
- Tunica cells are smaller and divide mainly
anticlinically (with cell division planes
perpendicular to the surface) to result in surface
growth.
- Consequently the walls between the cells are
also perpendicular to the surface of the organ.
The tunica may be one to many layered.
 Permanent Tissues
• These primary tissues are grouped together into three
tissue systems based on their continuity throughout the
plant body,.
• Tissue system are the organization of tissue of the same
origin to play a definite role in the life of plants. May consits
on or several types of tissues.

• Each plant organs has these tissues that form tissue

systems to produce permanent tissues. 3 tissue systems
are:
1 . Dermal/Epidermal tissue system
2 . Ground/Fundamental tissue system
3. Vascular tissue system
 PERMANENT TISSUES
• These are non-dividing differentiated cells
• Are grouped together into three tissue
systems based on their continuity throughout
the plant body. Each plant organs has these
tissues that form tissue systems. These are:
1 . Dermal tissue system – Complex tissue
2 . Vascular tissue system --- Complex tissue
3 . Ground tissue system – Simple tissue
Tissues and tissue systems in primary plant body

Tissue System and Component Tissues

its Functions
Dermal Tissue System Epidermis
• protection Periderm (in older stems and
• prevention of water roots)
loss
Ground Tissue System Parenchyma tissue
• photosynthesis Collenchyma tissue
• food storage Sclerenchyma tissue
• regeneration
• support
• protection
Vascular Tissue Xylem tissue
System Phloem tissue
• transport of water and
minerals
• transport of food
Each tissue system is continuous throughout the plant body,
but their arrangement varies in the different organs and
between monocots and dicots.
 1.DERMAL TISSUE SYSTEM (SKIN)
A complex tissue is composed of more than one cell type. It covers
all the external surface of the plant body without intercellular air
space. except on stomata and lenticels. They are responsible for
environmental interaction (light passage, gas exchange, pathogen
recognition, color display, etc.).
Types of dermal tissues (Epidermis and Periderm)
• Epidermis: primary surface tissue of the entire plant
(covers leaves, floral parts, fruits, seeds, stems and roots until
they have undergone considerable secondary growth)
Functions:

• Protection against various chemical and physical influences,

against being fed upon by animals and against infestation by
parasites, against desiccation
• Involved in gas exchange,
• Secretion of metabolic compounds
• Absorption of water
• Site of receptors for light and mechanical stimuli that help to
transform signals from the surrounding to the plant
Structure:
The epidermis has differentiated cells (but mostly parenchyma) to
perform the functions mentioned above
Epidermis of leaves usually consists of a single layer of
parenchyma cells with guard cells and trichomes; secretes the
waxy cuticle; gas exchange occurs through the stomata.
Exception is found in some leaves of (mutiple epidermis) eg in
indian rubber plant etc
Cells found include: parenchyma epidermal cells, parenchyma
storing cells, guard cells and trichomes.
Epidermis of a Leaf
• epidermal cells: the least specialized cells of the epidermis
(cells that are not specialized as guard cells, root hairs,
trichomes, etc.). May secrete a cuticle - a water repellent layer
that coats the outer cell walls of the epidermis on aerial parts of
plants. It is composed of cutin with a surface coating of wax .
• guard cells: cells that surround and control the size of stomatal
pores: an opening defined by pairs of guard cells that controls
gas exchange and water loss. The majority of epidermal do not
contain chloroplasts, although guard cells are an important
exception.
Subsidiary cells: cells adjacent to guard cells that are
distinct in appearance from ordinary epidermal cells.

Epidermal of roots consist of root hairs - involved in water

and mineral absorption.

Trichomes cells that project from the surface of the

epidermis. Have a variety of functions: secretion of protective
chemicals, provide a barrier to insect attack, secretion of salts
in some species, absorption of water in epiphytes, etc.

Some epidermal cells may be modified as glands that

secrete protective chemicals.
Multiple epidermis: an epidermis that is more than one cell layer
thick.
Plants that produce aerial roots may have an epidermis several
cells thick called velamen, e.g. orchids. The outer layer of the
velamen functions as a sponge. Some tropical plants have a
multiple-layered epidermis in their leaves to prevent desiccation, e.
g. tropical figs (Moraceae), and some members of Piperaceae
(Pepper family).
Plant cuticle is composed of a structural polymer, cutin that is
embedded in a complex mixture of highly hydrophobic soluble
materials called waxes.

Cuticular waxes are complex substances made of lipids and

esters and that vary from species to species.

Wax may form a smooth sheet, folds or rod-like deposits on the

surface of the epidermis

These cuticle folds have several functions: they enhance the

intense velvet effect of the flower color, increase the water-
repellent quality of the flower surface, strengthen the stability of
the petals.
Periderm
Periderm is a group of tissues which replaces the epidermis in
stems and roots that undergo secondary growth.
Its main function is to protect the underlying tissues from
desiccation, freezing, heat injury, mechanical destruction, and
disease.
Each cork cambium produces a sector of cells called a periderm.
The dividing cells (initials) of the cork cambium (phellogen)
divide to produce cells, most of which are "pushed" toward the
outside (cork cells called –phellem) made up of suberin, and some
may be pushed toward the inside.
 2. Ground tissue system
• Simple tissue and makes up the bulk of plant organs.
• Extend just below epidermis to centre excluding vascular
bundle
• Functions: Metabolism, storage and support.
1) Parenchyma tissue
2) Collenchyma tissue
3) Sclerenchyma tissue
Sometimes include laticiferous and glandular tissues

Root Stem Leaf

 Zones and sub zones in ground tissue
a. Cortex: made by parenchyma cells located btn
epidermis and pericycle.
- In wood dicots it differentiated into sub zones
(hypodermis, general cortex and endodermis)
- In roots it differentiated into sub zones of many
layers of general cortex, layer of endodermis with
many intercellular spaces with starch grain and
some times hypodermis
- Function of cortex: protective tissue in stems,
storage and photosynthesis, In roots is mainly
storage tissue
b) endodermis: also called starch sheath consists of
living cells some of them may contain mucilage,
tannin, gum etc
The inner wall of endodermis is thickened to
produce casparian strips particularly in roots
Function: water tightening jacket between xylem
and surrounding tissue
c) Read on function of Pericycle and Pith and pith
rays (cells composed, location, variation between
plant groups and functions)
 PARENCHYMA TISSUES
 Made of parenchyma cells, Living cells at maturity.

• Function in storage, secretion and photosynthesis.

 Usually have large vacuoles, and may have tannins, crystals,
oils, starch grains, etc.
 Found throughout the body of the plant.
 This is the most abundant tissue in plants.
Depending on its contents, parenchyma are of different types:
1. Aerenchyma is a modified parenchyma with large intercellular
spaces forming a network in acquatic plants – provide buoyancy
2. Chlorenchyma: parenchyma cells containing many
chloroplasts include spongy and palisade parenchyma – help
photosynthesis
3. Transfer cells: parenchyma cells with wall ingrowths that are
involved in the movement of large amounts of solutes over short
distances. They are found in the xylem and phloem of small
veins, endosperm and other reproductive structures, in
glandular tissues (nectaries, salt glands)
 When the tissue is damage, parenchyma cells may start
dividing again .
 COLLENCHYMA TISSUE

 Often arranged in strands or cylinders beneath dermal

tissue of stems or leaf petioles (stalks) and along the veins
in leaves
 unevenly thickened cell walls that help strengthen plant
have non-lignified primary walls
 provide support for the primary plant body; support flexible
parts of the plant.
4 Types of Collenchyma
Angular: the cells are irregularly arranged and the thickening with
cellulose is in the angles where two or more walls meet.
Lamellar : the cells are regularly arranged , the thickening with
cellulose lies on the tangential walls (cell wall is thickest on two
opposite sides).
Annular: the cells are irregularly arranged and the thickening with
cellulose on the whole wall of the cells with intercellular spaces.
Lacunar (tubular): collenchyma cells forms around a cavity or small
chamber inside the plant, the thickening may occur along the walls
facing the cavity lumen
Sclerenchyma tissue
Have both primary and thickened secondary cell walls.
Secondary walls impregnated with lignin.
Secondary wall with pits.
Cells are often dead at maturity.
Provide structural support.
There are two types of sclerenchyma cells: sclereids and
fibers.
 3. Vascular Tissue
b. Phloem
a. Xylem structure
structure

c.Cambium
structure
 Phloem (bast)
• Phloem is the food conducting tissue and
living
• Phloem transports the food (products of
photosynthesis – soluble proteins, amines,
amino acids and soluble carbohydrates ) from
the leaves to all other parts of the plant
including roots, seeds, etc.
• Several types of cells act together to transport
food including Sieve-tube elements,
Companion cells, phloem parenchyma
 Xylem
• Transports water and dissolved minerals
• Tracheids: long, thin tube like structures without perforations at
the ends
• Vessel elements: short, wide tubes perforated at the ends
(together form a pipe, called vessel).
- Vessels are of different types (spiral, annular, scalriform, reticulate
and pitted
• Both cells have pits (thin sections) on the walls

Tracheids Vessel elements

 Component of xylem
• Tracheids, vessels, xylem fibres and xylem
parenchyma cells (assist conduction and
storage).

With exception of xylem

parenchyma all other
elements in this tissue are
dead and lignified
 Cambium
• This strip of primary meristem lying btn the
xylem and phloem.
• It can be one or few layers of thin walled and
roughly rectangular cells
Different btn meristematic and
permanent tissues
 Variations of Tissues in major plant
organs
• Cells and tissues are organised into different
organs: Roots, Stems and Leaves

• Although tissues are basically the same, there

are essential differences in the arrangement
of the epidermis, ground tissue and vascular
tissue in monocot and dicot plants
 Arrangement of Primary tissues
• In the stem and root of some plant may:
- Have clearly defined pith surrounded by vascular
bundles distributed in the stele which may or may
not continuously connected, scattered. Pericycle
medullary rays may form part of vascular systems
- In some stem and most roots have solid region of
vascular tissues without any pith but with cortex
and epidermis to the exterior of vascular tissue
- Other plants have layers of endodermis and
pericycles (common in roots but also in stems of
plants live in aquatic environment
 Types of vascular bundles
• Based on arrangement of xylem and phloem, vascular
bundles are divided into various types:
1. Radial: xylem and phloem form separate bundles
which lie on different radii, alternating with each other
eg in the root
2. Conjoint: xylem and phloem combine in one bundle:
they are of different types
i. Collateral: common, xylem is innermost and primary
phloem is in the outer part. When cambium present
(called open) and when absence (is closed VB)
ii. Bicollateral: xylem is bounded both to the inside and
outside by strands of phloem and cambium. Or
phloem and cambium lie on both sides of xylem.
Example in Curcubitaceae, solanaceae, apocynaceae

iii. Concentric: when one type of vascular tissue surround

the other. Always give closed bundles and divided
into two:
a. Amphivasal: when phloem lies in the centre and
completely surrounded by xylem. Eg, in some
monocots like dracaena.

b. Amphicribral: when xylem lies in centre and

surrounded by phloem. eg. In many acquatic plants,
ferns
 Primary Tissues of a Dicot Root
• Epidermis – made of single layer of thin-walled rectangular
parenchyma cells, intecellular air space. Stomata and
cuticle are absent but root hairs present in zone of
maturation.
• Cortex – oval or round loosely-packed parenchyma cells
(Leucoplasts) which store starch grainsfood reserve.

• Endodermis – innermost layer of the cortex of closely

packed passage cells, near vascular cylinder, made by single
layer of parenchyma cells. The endodermis, with the aid of
the Casparian strips, facilitates the movement of water
from cortex to xylem.
• Inner walls of endodermal cells are thickened with suberin
called Casparian strip which regulates entrance of minerals
into the vascular cylinder
• Stele: comprise all the tissues present inside
endodermis. Divided into:-
- pericycle: a layer of parenchymatous cells
inner endodermis – It give rise to lateral roots,
root vascular cambium and cork cambium.
- Vascular tissues: have star shaped (xylem are
polygonal in shape alternate with phloem)
- Vascular bundles range from two to six in
number
- Pith is absent
- Secondary growth may take place
Tissues of a Dicot Root
 Anatomy of monocot roots
• Have the same tissue and layers like dicot roots
but:
- Cortex and Pith are wide and centrally located.
- Pericycle is often multilayered and produces
lateral roots.
• Vascular bundles are more than six in number
and clearly arranged.
• Xylem vessels are oval or rounded.
• Pith – well developed with mass of
parenchymatous cells in and out the centre
• Vascular bundles: xylem and phloem form an
equal no of separate bundle and arranged in ring
• Secondary growth does not take place.
Organization of Monocot Roots
• In a monocot root’s centrally
located pith, ground tissue is
surrounded by a vascular ring
composed of alternating xylem
and phloem bundles.
• Monocot roots also have
pericycle, endodermis, cortex, and
epidermis.
 Monocot vs. Dicot Stems
- Herbaceous Stems can be climbers, bulb, tubers &
runners
In dicot stems, vascular bundles are in a distinct ring;
monocot vascular bundles are scattered throughout.

DICOT Monocot
Cross-section view of primary stems
 Young Dicot stem
• Consists of following tissues:
• Epidermis (may bear some multicellular hairs
and few stomata but no chloroplast (except in
the guard cells),
• cortex {external collenchyma, central
parenchyma and and internal (starch sheath –
living and contain chloroplasts).
• Pericyle: lying btn cortex and VB – provide
structure, support and protection
 Dicot stem

• Ground tissue in Curcubita stem: made up of

continuous mass of thin walled parenchyma cells
extending from sclerenchyma cells to the centre
• Medullary rays: few layers of big polygonal or
radial elongated cells lying between two vascular
bundles
• Vascular bundles: may be collateral and open
and are arranged in ring
Herbaceous dicot stem
 Monocot stems
• Vascular bundles: mostly collatteral and closed
and scattered in the ground tissue
 Woody Stems
• A woody plant has both primary and secondary
tissues.
• Primary tissues are new tissues formed from
differentiation of primary meristems/primary
growth. It is the normal growth occur in every
plant body.
• The process of primary growth results in the
formation of primary permanent tissues such as
primary xylem, primary phloem and primary
cortex.
• However Secondary tissues develop during the
second and subsequent years of growth from
lateral meristems (vascular cambium and cork
cambium).
• Primary growth, which occurs in all plants, increases the
length of the plant and lateral appendages.

• Secondary growth, which occurs in conifers and some

dicots, additional tissue are added in lateral direction to
increases the girth of a plant.

• Trees undergo secondary growth because of a change in

vascular cambium (result from intra and inter-fascicular)
.

• It results the formation of secondary permanent tissues

tissues called secondary xylem and secondary phloem
and secondary cortex, which add to the girth of trunks,
stems, branches, and roots. Xylem development can be
endarch, exarch, centrarch & mesarch

• The other cell of vascular bundle remains

undifferentiated (same as vascular bundle cell)
Dicot stems
• As a result of secondary growth, a woody dicot
stem has an entirely different type of
organization.
• A woody stem now has three distinct areas: the
pith, the wood, and the bark.
• Pith rays are composed of living parenchyma
cells that allow materials to move laterally.
• The bark of a tree contains cork, cork cambium,
and phloem. As the secondary phloem increases
in its thickness, the primary phloem decreases in
its thickness

• Cork cambium replaces epidermis with cork cells

impregnated with suberin.
Secondary growth in a dicot stem
 Annual Rings
• The mitotic activity of cambial ring is purely
seasonal.
• Vascular Cambium is active during growing
seasons and it is dormant during winter/ drought
• S/Growth occurs only twice during every year,
once in the spring/masika and once in the
autumn/vuli. Thus, every year two sets of
secondary xylem and two sets of secondary
phloem are formed.
• Spring/masika followed by summer/vuli wood
makes up one year’s growth or annual ring.
• One such annual ring is added every year due to
secondary growth.
• Thus, it is possible to ascertain the age of a dicot
tree by counting the number of annual rings
Section of woody stem
Tree trunk
Differences between Monocot and Dicot Stems
Monocotyledon Dicotyledon
1. A large number of vascular 1. A limited number of vascular
bundles. bundles.
2. The vascular bundles are 2. The vascular bundles are
scattered in the ground tissue. arranged in a ring.
3. No cambium occurs between the 3. Cambium occurs between the
xylem and phloem. xylem and phloem.
4. There is no distinction between 4. The cortex and pith can be
the cortex and pith. clearly distinguish.
5. No Secondary thickening. 5. Secondary thickening can occur.
6. Annual rings are formed due to
6. No annual rings are formed.
secondary thickening.
 Differences btn sunflower and maize
Sunflower (Dicot)
Hypodermis collenchyma
General cortex Few layers of parenchyma
Endodermis Waxy layer
Pericycle Zone of parenchyma and
sclerenchyma
Medullary rays A strip of parenchyma in
between vascular bundle
Pith The central cylinder
Vascular bundles Collateral and open exarch
xylem, arranged in ring, of
uniform size, phloem
parenchyma present,
wedge shaped, bundle
sheath absent
Maize (Monocot)
schlerenchyma
Continuous mass of
parenchyma up to the pith
without differentiation into
distinct tissues
Same
Same
Not marked out
same
Collateral and closed,
scattered, large toward the
centre, phloem
parenchyma is absent, oval
shaped, bundle sheath well
developed
 Differences between Dicot and
monocot roots
DICOTS MONOCOTS
1. Xylem bundles Vary from 2 to 6 (dito- Numerous (polyarch)
hexarch)
V.B are exarch and radial
2. Conjugative tissues Small walled Thick walled lignified cells
parenchmatous cells
3. Pericycles Give rise to lateral roots, Give raise to lateral roots
cambium and cork only
cambium
4. Pith Small or absent Large and well developed
5. Cambium Appear letter as a Absent
secondary meristem
SECONDARY GROWTH IN ROOT
Transition of tissue arrangement from
the roots to the stem
• SELF READING: Root –Stem transition
• The hypocotyl is the stem of a germinating seedling,
found below the cotyledons and above the radicle
 4 types of Root- stem transition
1. Fumaria type (A-type)

2. Curcubita type (B-Type)

3. Lathyrus type (C- type)

4. SAmenarrhena Type (D-type)

 ANOMALOUS SECONDARY GROWTH
• Occurs in various kind of dicotyledons ( lianes,
bougainvillea, Amaranthus ) showing peculiar
structure in thickening of xylem & phloem.
• Causes:
- Irregular behavior of the cambium, and or
- Abnormal position of the cambium
• Vary greatly between plants eg,
• In Bignonia plants, the cambium is normal in
position, but with irregular behavior giving rise
secondary xylem and phloem in incompatible
proportions and arrangement
 A. Exceptions in anatomy of monocots stems
• Some monocots (wooden monocots eg dracaena, Agave)
exhibit a special form of secondary growth through. They
exceptionally large amount of se. growth
1. Anomalous secondary growth: a cambium is formed and
produces vascular bundles and parenchyma internally and
just parenchyma externally. Eg. In Dracaena, pandanus,
bamboo – with hollowed/softern stem
- Secondary growth is due to abnormal cambium activities
emerged at the cortex
• Start as normal cambium but latter develop unidirectional
growth at 4 diognal points.
• Produce less secondary xylem and more S.
phloem which form 4 deep wedges supported
by band of sclerotic cells
• 4 wedges of S. phloem and 4 ridges of S.
Xylem formed

• Secondary vascular bundles produced are

amphivasal where phloem are surrounded by
xylem
• Xylem have endarch development while
phloem have exerch development
Anomalous Secondary Growth
2. Development of Stout stems of palms
The increase of the girth of palm plants (cocos plants
and other plants with broad shoot apices and uniform
stem) is not caused by secondary growth
- Cause by protracted primary growth by the activity of
primary thickening meristem (PTM) occuring beneath
the SAM
- The stem is stout but no cambium in them, and thus
no sec. growth
- most of the increase in girth takes place close to the
apex.
- the meristematic cells of PTM divide anticlinally near
the SAM, and periclinally as they are displaced from
the SAM.
• This meristem produce files of cells towards the
inside of the stem.
• This causes an increase in the diameter of the
stem in the vicinity of the SAM with virtually
no Internodal Elongation

• Procambium is abundant in the derivative

cells of the PTM give rise to primary vascular
bundles of the stem.
•
• These plants have many veins in their leaves
and this is reflected in the number of vascular
bundles in the stem
• B. Exceptions in anatomy of dicots stems
• Some dicots have Anomalous Secondary Growth e.g.
in Bougainvillea where a series of cambia arise outside
the oldest phloem
• Also pawpaw stems – Are semi-wood, long lived
herbaceous plant. It is at intermediate position
between wood and herbaceous plants. The plant has
hollowed stem, petioles and fruits

• a thick, single layer of secondary phloem, rich in fibers,

and two sclerenchyma layers located immediately
inside the bark are responsible for most of the rigidity

• Young stems become progressively hollow by the

dissolution of the pith at the internodes as they mature
• Bougainvillea – series of cambia arise outside
the oldest phloem
Leaf Anatomy
 Leaf Epidermis - tissues and cells
Epidermis - made of parenchyma type cells. It consists of
Guard cells - regulate the amount of carbon dioxide and
water vapor that pass through a stomata pores

Trichomes (hairs) may cover one or both surfaces;

secretes the waxy cuticle covering the epidermis cells
to reduce evaporation from the leaf and gas exchange.

Stomata - The upper leaf surface has few/sunken or no

stomata compared to the lower surface. Used for
gaseous exchange
 Stomata
A stoma or pore is formed by a pair of bean-shaped guard cells.
The guard cells have the ability to open and close the stoma.

The inner walls of the guard cells are thick and the outer walls thin

There are more stomata on the lower epidermis of the leaf than
the upper epidermis.

Stomata are responsible for the interchange of gases for

respiration and photosynthesis.

Stomata allow for the loss of excess water in the form of water
vapor, which also allows for cooling.
Stoma of leaf
 Leaves Ground Tissues

The mesophyll (the ground tissue in the middle of the leaf) is the
site of photosynthesis

Palisade parenchyma lies just under the epidermis and consists of

elongated, cylindrical parenchyma cells that are arrayed perpendicular
to the leaf surface.
This layer maximizes exposure of the chloroplasts to the sun

Spongy parenchyma consists of irregular cells clustered together to

create large air spaces between cells

The air spaces aid in gas exchange between the leaf and the outside air
 Vascular tissue
The veins are the vascular tissue of the leaf and are located
in the spongy layer of the mesophyll.

The veins are made up of:

Xylem: tubes that bring water and minerals from the roots
into the leaf.

Phloem: tubes that usually move sap, with dissolved sucrose,

produced by photosynthesis in the leaf, out of the leaf.
The lignified xylem cells are situated towards the upper epidermis
and the phloem towards the lower epidermis.

In the large veins the vascular bundles are usually surrounded by a

bundle sheath.
 Anatomical differences between
leaves
• Depends on the photosynthetic pathway, leaves
can be called C3, C4, CAM leaves
• C3 leaves- eg beans, rice, wheat, potatoes. most
temperate crops. all woody trees.
• C4 leaves: eg corn, sugarcane, amaranth. hot,
dry. mostly grasses but some shrubs (cold-
tolerant)
• CAM plants: cactus, euphorbia, some orchids
(epiphytic) short of water, not too hot
Difference between C3 and C4 leaves
CAM Plants: the stomata in the leaves remain
shut during the day to reduce
evapotranspiration, but open at night to
collect carbon dioxide (CO2).
Monocots versus dicots leaves
 Leaf exceptions: Monocots Vs. Dicots
• Some monocots have reticulate venation. Eg.
Plants from Araceae family

• There are number of dicots with parallel

venation. Eg mango
Morphological & Anatomical structure of
flower
 Anatomy of Monocot Versus Dicot
Plants

• Important monocots are rice, wheat and corn; oak trees

and dandelions are dicots.
 Other differences
• Adventitious roots in monocots while dicots have
tap roots
• Usually no lateral cambium and no secondary
growth in monocots while present in woody
dicots
• Stems are usually hollowed in monocots while
dicots have solid stems
• Seed germination normally hypogeal in monocots
while dicots have epigeal germination