The Nervous System

Presented by:
Dr. Gina F. Pardilla
Nervous Tissue cells

 Supporting cells – support and

protect neurons
 Neuron – transmits electrical
impulses
Supporting Cells

 Astrocytes – barrier between

capillaries and neuron
 Microglia – phagocytes
 Ependymal cells – line cavities
of brain/spinal cord
 Oligodendrocytes – myelin
sheath of CNS
 Schwann cells – myelin sheath
of PNS
Neuron

 Highly specialized to transmit

messages
 Cell body w/ Nissl bodies (RER)
 Processes: Axons (transmitting
end) and Dendrites (receiving
end)
Types of Neurons

 Sensory (afferent) neurons –

from sensory receptors to CNS
 Motor (efferent) neurons – from
CNS to effector (muscle/glands)
 Interneurons – connect neuron
to neuron found in CNS only
Synapses

 An axon transmits a nerve impulse

at a specialized junction with another
neuron called synapse
 Junction of Presynaptic and
Postsynaptic neurons
 Axons may establish synaptic
contacts with any portion of the
surface of another neuron, except
those regions that are myelinated
Chemical Synapses

 The most numerous type of synapse

 Facilitates most interactions between
neurons and all communications
between neurons and effectors
 At these junctions, the presynaptic
membrane releases a signaling
molecule called a neurotransmitter,
such as acetylcholine (ACh)
Nerve Physiology

 Neurons have 2 major

properties:
– Irritability (ability to respond to
stimulus and convert it to impulse
– Conductivity (ability to transmit
the impulse)
Generation of Nerve Impulse
 Inactive neuron (polarized:
inside more negative)
– Na+: chief extracellular ion
– K+: chief intracellular ion
 Depolarization (Na+ influx)
 Activation of Action potential/
Nerve Impulse
 Repolarization (K+ efflux)
 Sodium-Potassium pump
activation
Reflex

 Rapid, predictable, and

involuntary response to stimulus
 2 types:
– Somatic reflex (skeletal muscle
stimulation)
– Autonomic reflex
Central Nervous System

 Brain

 Spinal Cord
Brain
 Average human
brain weighs about
3 pounds (1300-
1400 g)
 The brain reaches
its full size at ~6
y/o
 If brain cells do not
get oxygen for 3 to
5 min, they begin
to die
Regions of the Brain

 Cerebral Hemispheres
 Diencephalon
 Cerebellum
 Brain Stem
The Cerebrum

 The cerebrum, the largest part

of the human brain, is divided
into left and right hemispheres
connected to each other by the
corpus callosum. The
hemispheres are covered by a
thin layer of gray matter known
as the cerebral cortex
The Cerebrum

 The hemispheres exhibit gyri

(elevated ridges) and sulci
(shallow grooves)
 Divided into lobes
Primary Lobes of the Brain

 Frontal Lobe – motor & thought

process
 Parietal Lobe – sensory
 Temporal Lobe – auditory
 Occipital Lobe – visual
 Limbic lobe - emotions
 Insula – not well understood;
language(?) & sense of
balance(?)
Other Special Areas

 Olfactory area – deep inside the

temporal lobe
 Language areas:
– Broca’s area: speech production
(base of precentral gyrus)
– Wernicke’s area: speech
comprehension
 Basal nuclei – islands of gray
matter; regulate motor activities
The Homunculus
The Diencephalon

 Between Cerebrum and Brain

Stem
 Major structures:
– Thalamus: relay station for sensory
impulses
– Hypothalamus: regulatory center of
Autonomic Nervous System; part of
limbic system (emotional brain)
– Epithalamus: pineal gland &
choroid plexus
The Brainstem
 Pathway for nerve tracts
 Contains nuclei of cranial
nerves
 Contains vital visceral centers
(breathing, BP, HR)
 Contains the Reticular
Activating System (RAS) in the
reticular formation w/c plays a
role in consciousness
 Midbrain, Pons, Medulla
The Cerebellum

 Large cauliflower-like part of the

brain
 Coordinates timing of muscle
activities and
balance/equilibrium
The Spinal Cord

 Two-way conduction pathway to

and from the brain
 Major reflex center
 Emerges from the base of the
brain at the level of the foramen
magnum & extends caudally to
L2 vertebra, then cauda equina
Protection of the CNS

 Skull bones and vertebral

column
 Meninges
 Cerebrospinal fluid
 Blood-Brain barrier
Meninges

 Dura mater – tough outermost

(attached to inner surface of
the skull)
 Arachnoid mater – middle
weblike
 Pia mater – innermost delicate
(clings tightly to the brain/SC)
Cerebrospinal Fluid
 Water-cushion
 Continually formed and drained
 Lateral ventricles (cerebrum) 
Third ventricle (diencephalon)
 Cerebral aqueduct (midbrain)
 Fourth ventricle (posterior of
pons & medulla) 
Subarachnoid space (minority
will continue down the vertebral
canal)  Arachnoid villi  Blood
Blood-Brain Barrier

 Relatively impermeable
capillaries
 Brain is sensitive to chemical
changes
CNS Dysfunctions

 Cerebrovascular accidents
(stroke)
 Alzheimer’s disease
 Parkinson’s disease
 Hydrocephalus
Cerebrovascular accidents

 When blood circulation to brain

neurons is blocked and brain
tissue dies
Alzheimer’s Disease

 Degenerative brain disease in

which abnormal protein deposits
and other structural changes
appear
 Slow, progressive loss of
memory and motor control plus
increasing dementia
Parkinson’s Disease

 Degeneration of the Dopamine-

releasing Substantia Nigra of
the Basal Ganglia
 Unable to walk normally
 Resting tremors, pill-rolling
Hydrocephalus
Peripheral Nervous System

 Cranial Nerves
 Spinal Nerves
 Autonomic Nerves
– Sympathetic
– Parasympathetic
Spinal Nerves

 31 pairs of spinal nerves from

the spinal cord
– Cervical nerves (8)
– Thoracic nerves (12)
– Lumbar nerves (5)
– Sacral nerves (5)
– Coccygeal nerve (1)
Dermatomes

 A specific segment of skin

supplied by a single spinal
nerve.
 All spinal nerves except for C1
innervate a segment of skin,
and so each of these nerves is
associated with a dermatome.
Intercostal Nerves

 Anterior rami of spinal nerves

T1–T11.
 Travel in the intercostal space
sandwiched between two
adjacent ribs.
 Nerve Plexuses

 A network of interweaving anterior

rami of spinal nerves.
 Anterior rami of most spinal nerves
form nerve plexuses on both the
right and left sides of the body.
 Nerve plexuses then split into
multiple “named” nerves that
innervate various body structures
Principal plexuses

 Cervical plexus – C1 to C5
 Brachial plexus – C5 to T1
 Lumbar plexus – L1 to L5
 Sacral plexus – L4 to S4
Autonomic Nervous System

 Parasympathetic System –
“resting-and-digesting” system
 Sympathetic System – “fight-or-
flight” division
 Counterbalance each other
Parasympathetic System

 In general, causes constriction

and contraction of organs,
except for the CVS organs
(heart and blood vessels)
Parasympathetic System
– constriction of pupils
– constriction of bronchioles and
increase in secretions
– increase in peristalsis and secretions
– contraction of bladder (relaxation of
sphincter)
– increase in salivation
– decrease in heart rate
– dilation of blood vessels
– penile erection (due to vasodilation)
Sympathetic System

 “Fight-or-flight” division
 Increases heart rate
 Increases blood pressure
 Causes Ejaculation
 THANK YOU!

References:
Marieb, Elaine N., RN, Ph. D, Essentials
of Human Anatomy & Physiology, 7th ed,
2003
http://faculty.orangecoastcollege.edu/