Chapter 1:

Basic Concepts and Methods

IN THIS CHAPTER

• Introduction to Human Development

• Key Issues in the Study of Human

Development

• Research Methods and Designs

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1.1 What ideas about development were proposed by early

philosophers and scientists?
1.2 What is the lifespan perspective?
1.3 What major domains and periods do developmental
scientists use to organize their discussions Of the human
lifespan?
1.4 How do developmentalists view the two sides of the
nature–nurture debate?
1.5 What is the continuity–discontinuity debate?
1.6 How do the three kinds of age-related change differ?
1.7 How does consideration of the contexts in which change
occurs improve scientists’ understanding of human
development?
LEARNING OBJECTIVES (con’t)

1.8 What are the goals of scientists who study human

development?
1.9 What descriptive methods do developmental
scientists use?
1.10 What is the primary advantage of the experimental
method?
1.11 What are the pros and cons of cross-sectional,
longitudinal, and sequential research designs?
1.12 Why is cross-cultural research important to the study
of human development?
1.13 What are the ethical standards that developmental
researchers must follow?
AN INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Human development: scientific study of age-

related changes in:
 Behavior
 Thinking
 Emotion
 Personality
PHILOSOPHICAL ROOTS
Original Sin

Augustine of Hippo
 Humans are born selfish and must seek
spiritual rebirth.
Developmental Outcomes
 Individuals struggle to overcome immoral
actions.
PHILOSOPHICAL AND SCIENTIFIC ROOTS
Innate Goodness

Jean-Jacques Rousseau
 Emphasis on children and the basic
goodness of human nature
 Nurturance and protection needed
Developmental Outcomes
 Children’s environment interferes or
encourages
PHILOSOPHICAL AND SCIENTIFIC ROOTS
The Blank Slate

John Locke
 Empiricism
 Children as passive recipients of
environmental experiences
Developmental Outcomes
 Individual differences due to experience
EARLY SCIENTIFIC THEORIES
Charles Darwin

First Organized Study of Human Development

Evolution
 Interplay of genetics and environmental
adaptation
Baby Biographies
 Detailed records of his own children’s early
years
EARLY SCIENTIFIC THEORIES
G. Stanley Hall

First Scientific Study of Child Development

 Psychologist
 Emphasis on norms or average ages at which
developmental milestones occur
 Coined the phrase “storm and stress” to refer
to adolescence
EARLY SCIENTIFIC THEORIES
Arnold Gesell

Systematic Description of Children across

Domains, Particularly in the First Five Years of
Life
 Maturation occurs “naturally” as a result of a
genetically programmed sequence.
 Used movie cameras, one-way mirrors
THE LIFESPAN PERSPECTIVE
Overview
• Important changes occur in each period of
development.
• Children and adults experience major life
passages.
• Increased longevity
THE LIFESPAN PERSPECTIVE
Paul Baltes

• Multi-contextual nature of development

• Plasticity and adaptability at all ages
• Interdisciplinary perspective and research
• With age comes the need for strategies used to
maximize gains and compensate for losses.
DOMAINS AND PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT

Three Broad Domain Categories:

PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT

Early Middle
Prenatal Infancy
Childhood Childhood

Early Middle Late

Adolescence
Adulthood Adulthood Adulthood
AGE DIFFERENCES IN ATTAINMENT OF
MAJORITY STATUS AROUND THE WORLD
• Different cultures set different legal boundaries that
mark the entry into early adulthood.
• U.S.: parental permission is needed to join the military
until age 18; age 16 for driving; age 17 or 18 for criminal
accountability; age 18 for signing contracts; 21 for buying
alcohol; age 24 for economic independence (college
loans)
 Emerging adulthood
• Age of majority to join military in other countries: 15
in Laos, 16 in the United Kingdom, 17 in Nicaragua, 19 in
Algeria, 20 in South Korea, 21 in Brazil, and 22 in
Afghanistan (CIA World Factbook , 2013)
STOP AND THINK!

What marks the end of each of these periods of

development?
How do you know?
KEY ISSUES IN THE STUDY OF HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT
Nature versus Nurture

Nature
 Inborn propensities; biological influences
 Inborn biases
Nurture
 Learning from environmental experiences
 Internal models of experience
CONTINUITY VERSUS DISCONTINUITY

Continuity = Quantitative change in amount or

degree
Discontinuity = Qualitative, step-like change
What are the advantages and disadvantages of
each kind of change?
ANOTHER WAY TO LOOK AT IT!

• If development consists only of additions, the

concept of stages is not needed.
• If development involves reorganization or
emergence strategies, quality, or skills, than
stages are useful.
THREE KINDS OF CHANGE
Qualitative Changes in Kind or Type

Normative Age-Graded Universal Changes

 Social clock or age norms
Normative History-Graded Changes
 Cohort or generational effects
Non-Normative Changes
 Unique, unshared changes or individual
differences
AN EXAMPLE OF A COHORT EFFECT: CHILDREN AND
ADOLESCENTS IN THE GREAT DEPRESSION
• Elder; Berkeley/Oakland Growth Study
• Long-term study of cohort differences
• Older cohort: experienced worst economic hardship;
assumed adult responsibilities; contributed to family
welfare; demonstrated strong work ethic and family
commitment
• Younger cohort: often suffered loss of cohesion and
warmth; demonstrated general negative consequences for
boys; were less hopeful and confident; preformed less well
in school and years of schooling; demonstrated less
ambition and success as adults
Critical Analysis
1. Individuals who were born in 1985 were in high school
when the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001,
occurred. Those who were born a decade later, in 1995,
were in the early elementary grades. Individuals in both
cohorts probably remember the events, but, because they
experienced them during different periods of
development, the two groups might have been affected
differently.
2. What kinds of differences do you think might be found in
these two groups’ long-term reactions to the events of
September 11, 2001?
CONTEXTS OF DEVELOPMENT
Vulnerability and Resilience

• Vulnerabilities and protective factors interact with

a child’s environment.
• Environments cause differential effects.
• Resilient children gain support from optimal
environments.
CONTEXTS OF DEVELOPMENT
Gender

• Gender matters.
• It influences individual development.
• Interaction between characteristics and
environment influences and is influenced by
gender.
CONTEXTS OF DEVELOPMENT
Origins of Delinquency

Poor discipline
and poor
monitoring

Push toward Non-compliant

delinquency child

Delinquency

Negative
Rejection by
behavior
peers and
patterns
school difficulty
established
CONTEXTS OF DEVELOPMENT

Individual Differences Related to Timing

• Critical period
• Sensitive period
• On-time events
• Off-time events
• Atypical development
• “Double whammy”
THE GOALS OF DEVELOPMENTAL SCIENCE

• Describe development.
• Explain development.
• Predict developmental event.
• Influence some developmental outcome.
RESEARCH METHODS AND DESIGNS

Are theories and hypotheses the same?

• Theories
• Predictions or hypotheses
DESCRIPTIVE METHODS

Variables: characteristics that vary across people

Relationship: when two or more variables vary
together
Can you think of two variables we could study to
learn about our class?
It Depends . . .
Decide which of these two statements you most
agree with and think about how you would defend
your position:
1. Relevant research findings should be the most
important factor in the formation of social
policies.
2. Research findings represent only one of several
sources of information that ought to be
considered in the formation of social policies.
DESCRIPTIVE METHODS
Naturalistic Observations

Descriptive methods: ways to identify relationship

• People observed in their normal environments
• Potential observer biases
• Limited generalizability
• Time consuming
DESCRIPTIVE METHODS
Case Studies and Laboratory Observations

Case Studies
 In-depth examination of a single individual
Laboratory Observations
 Controlled setting for study
DESCRIPTIVE METHODS
Surveys, Interviews, and Questionnaires

Two broad survey areas

 Questionnaires
 Interviews
Methods
 Questions asked; answers recorded
 Samples used
CORRELATIONS

Correlations
 Describe the strength of the relationship
between two variables
Positive Correlation
 High scores on one variable usually
accompany high scores on the other.
Negative Correlation
 Scores on two variables move in opposite
directions.
LIMITATIONS OF CORRELATIONS

• Correlation is NOT causality.

• Correlations measure the level or degree
of covariation between two variables.
• They do not prove causal relationships.
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

• Test causal hypotheses.

• Randomly assign participants to different
treatment and control groups.
 Experimental (treatment) group
 Control group
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
Variables

• Independent variable or “cause”

• Dependent variable or “effect”
 The dependent variable depends on the
“cause.”
• Quasi-experiments
 Participants are not randomly assigned.
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
Three General Categories

Let’s take a closer look at each.

DESIGNS TO STUDY AGE-RELATED CHANGES
Cross-Sectional Designs

• People from different age groups studied at the

same time point
• Can indicate possible age differences or age
changes
• Age-related differences may become confused
with cohort or generational effects.
BIRTH COHORT OR GENERATIONAL EFFECTS

• Different generations have unique experiences.

• Cohort and generational effects can become
entangled.
CAN YOU SEE ANY COHORT PATTERNS?

Figure 1.1 An Example of a Cross-Sectional Design

DESIGNS TO STUDY AGE-RELATED CHANGES
Longitudinal Designs

• Same individuals studied over a period of time

• Individual consistencies and inconsistencies can
be observed.
• Net change assessed over time in the same
people.
LONGITUDINAL DESIGNS
Some Problems

• Practice or testing affect

• Study attrition
AN EXAMPLE OF A LONGITUDINAL DESIGN

Figure 1.2 Example of a Longitudinal Design

DESIGNS TO STUDY AGE-RELATED CHANGES
Sequential Designs

• Combined groups from at least two cohorts

followed in a longitudinal study
• Comparison of cohorts while incorporating some
degree of individual differences
• Both aging AND cohort effects are possible.
AN EXAMPLE OF A CROSS-SEQUENTIAL
DESIGN

Figure 1.3 An Example of a Cross-Sequential Design

CROSS-CULTURAL RESEARCH
Ethnographies

• In-depth descriptions of single culture or context

• May compare two or more cultures or
subcultures
• Can provide both descriptive and interpretive
information
CROSS-CULTURAL RESEARCH
Benefits

Cross-Cultural Studies
• Search for universal and unique developmental
changes
• Demonstrate degree of environmental variation
within human development
RESEARCH ETHICS

Ethics: broad ethical principles for responsible

conduct of research and use of any outcomes
resulting from research
In Research
• Protection of animal rights and human subjects
• Universities, government, and organizations
often have Institutional Review Boards (IRBs).
RESEARCH ETHICS

• Protection from harm

• Informed consent
• Confidentiality
• Knowledge of result
• Deception