EST Refresher

Fiber Optics,
Transmission Lines
and Cellular
Communications
Eugene H. Embalzado Jr., ECE
Fiber Optic Communication System
Advantages of FOC over Metallic
Cable
 Wider bandwidth and greater
information capacity.
◦ Optical fibers have greater information
capacity than metallic cables because of the
inherently wider bandwidths available with
optical frequencies.
 Immunity to crosstalk.
◦ Optical fiber cables are immune to crosstalk
because glass and plastic fibers are
nonconductors of electrical current.
Advantages of FOC over Metallic
Cable
 Immunity to static interference.
◦ Because optical fiber cables are
nonconductors of electrical current, they are
immune to static noise due to
electromagnetic interference (EMI) caused by
lightning, electric motors, relays, fluorescent
lights, and other electrical noise sources
Advantages of FOC over Metallic
Cable
 Environmental immunity.
◦ Optical fiber cables are more resistant to
environmental extremes (including weather
variations) than metallic cables.
◦ Optical cables also operate over a wider
temperature range and are less affected by
corrosive liquids and gases.
Advantages of FOC over Metallic
Cable
 Safety and convenience.
◦ Optical fiber cables are safer and easier to
install and maintain than metallic cables.
◦ Because glass and plastic fibers are
nonconductors, there are no electrical
currents or voltages associated with them.
Advantages of FOC over Metallic
Cable
 Lower transmission loss.
◦ Optical fibers have considerably less signal
loss than their metallic counterparts.
◦ Optical fibers are currently being
manufactured with as little as a few-tenths-of-
a-decibel loss per kilometer.
Advantages of FOC over Metallic
Cable
 Security.
◦ Optical fiber cables are more secure than
metallic cables. It is virtually impossible to tap
into a fiber cable without the user’s
knowledge,
 Durability and reliability.
◦ Optical fiber cables last longer and are more
reliable than metallic facilities because fiber
cables have a higher tolerance to changes in
environmental conditions and are immune to
corrosive materials.
Advantages of FOC over Metallic
Cable
 Economics.
 The cost of optical fiber cables is
approximately the same as metallic cables.
Fiber cables have less loss and require
fewer repeaters, which equates to lower
installation and overall system costs and
improved reliability.
Disadvantages of Optical Fiber
Cables
 Interfacing costs.
◦ Optical fiber cable systems are virtually
useless by themselves.
◦ To be practical and useful, they must be
connected to standard electronic facilities,
which often require expensive interfaces.
Disadvantages of Optical Fiber
Cables
 Strength.
◦ Optical fibers by themselves have a significantly
lower tensile strength than coaxial cable. This can
be improved by coating the fiber with standard
Kevlar and a protective jacket of PVC.
 Remote electrical power.
◦ Occasionally, it is necessary to provide electrical
power to remote interface or regenerating
equipment.
◦ This cannot be accomplished with the optical
cable, so additional metallic cables must be
included in the cable assembly.
Disadvantages of Optical Fiber
Cables
 Optical fiber cables are more
susceptible to losses introduced by
bending the cable.
◦ Electromagnetic waves propagate through an
optical cable by either refraction or reflection.
◦ Therefore, bending the cable causes
irregularities in the cable dimensions, resulting
in a loss of signal power.
Disadvantages of Optical Fiber
Cables
 Specialized tools, equipment, and
training.
◦ Optical fiber cables require special tools to
splice and repair cables and special test
equipment to make routine measurements.
◦ Not only is repairing fiber cables difficult and
expensive, but technicians working on optical
cables also require special skills and training.
1. Founded the wave theory of light
a. Francesco Grimaldi
b. Edward Appleton
c. James Clerk Maxwell
d. Christian Huygens
1. Founded the wave theory of light
a. Francesco Grimaldi
b. Edward Appleton
c. James Clerk Maxwell
d. Christian Huygens
2. Developed the first laser.
a. Charles Townes
b. Theodore Maiman
c. Gordon McKenzie
d. Albert Einstein
2. Developed the first laser.
a. Charles Townes
b. Theodore Maiman
c. Gordon McKenzie
d. Albert Einstein
3. The band of light wavelengths that are
too long to be seen by the human eye.
a. amber b. visible
c. infrared d. ultraviolet
3. The band of light wavelengths that are
too long to be seen by the human eye.
a. amber b. visible
c. infrared d. ultraviolet
4. Which color has the shortest wavelength
of light?
a. Red b.Yellow
c. Blue d. Green
4. Which color has the shortest wavelength
of light?
a. Red b.Yellow
c. Blue d. Green
5. The core of an optical fiber has a
a. lower refractive index than air
b. lower refractive index than the cladding
c. higher refractive index than the cladding
d. similar refractive index with the cladding
5. The core of an optical fiber has a
a. lower refractive index than air
b. lower refractive index than the cladding
c. higher refractive index than the cladding
d. similar refractive index with the cladding
Critical Angle
 defined as the minimum angle of incidence at which a
light ray may strike the interface of two media and
result in an angle of refraction of 90° or greater.
 note that the light ray must be traveling from a
medium of higher refractive index to a medium with a
lower refractive index (i.e., glass into cladding).
 If the angle of refraction is 90° or greater, the light ray
is not allowed to penetrate the less dense material.
 total reflection takes place at the interface, and the
angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence.
Critical Angle Formula
Acceptance Angle
 the maximum angle in which external light
rays may strike the air/glass interface and
still propagate down the fiber.
Acceptance Angle Formula
Numerical Aperture (NA)
 the figure of merit commonly used to
measure the magnitude of the acceptance
angle.
 used to describe the light-gathering or light-
collecting ability of an optical fiber (i.e., the
ability to couple light into the cable from an
external source).
 The larger the magnitude of the numerical
aperture, the greater the amount of external
light the fiber will accept.
Numerical Aperture Formula
6. Is the different angle of entry of light into
an optical fiber when the diameter of the
core is many times the wavelength of the
light transmitted.
a. acceptance angle b. modes
c. sensors d. aperture
6. Is the different angle of entry of light into
an optical fiber when the diameter of the
core is many times the wavelength of the
light transmitted.
a. acceptance angle b. modes
c. sensors d. aperture
Mode of Propagation
 Mode = Path
Number of Modes Formula
7. Proposed the use of a clad glass fiber as
dielectric waveguide.
a. Karpon and Keck
b. Karpon and Bockham
c. Bockham and Kao
d. Kao and Keck
7. Proposed the use of a clad glass fiber as
dielectric waveguide.
a. Karpon and Keck
b. Karpon and Bockham
c. Bockham and Kao
d. Kao and Keck
8. The loss in signal power as light travels
down a fiber is called
a. dispersion b. scattering
c. absorption d. attenuation
8. The loss in signal power as light travels
down a fiber is called
a. dispersion b. scattering
c. absorption d. attenuation
Power Loss in Optic Fiber Cable
 Power loss is often called attenuation and
results in a reduction in the power of the
light wave as it travels down the cable.
Predominant Losses in FOC
 Absorption loss
 Material, or Rayleigh, scattering losses
 Chromatic, or wavelength, dispersion
 Radiation losses
 Modal dispersion
 Coupling losses
Absorption Losses
 Ultraviolet absorption
 caused by valence electrons in the silica
material
 light ionizes the valence electrons into
conduction.
 the ionization is equivalent to a loss in the
total light field
Infrared absorption
 a result of photons of light that are
absorbed by the atoms of the glass core
molecules.
 absorbed photons are converted to
random mechanical vibrations typical of
heating.
Ion resonance absorption
 is caused by OH- ions in the material.
 the source of the OH ions is water
molecules that have been trapped in the
glass during the manufacturing process
Material, or Rayleigh,
Scattering Losses
 When light rays propagating down a fiber
strike one of impurities, they are
diffracted.
 Diffraction causes the light to disperse or
spread out in many directions. Some of
the diffracted light continues down the
fiber, and some of it escapes through the
cladding.
 The light rays that escape represent a loss
in light power
Chromatic, or Wavelength,
Dispersion
 Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) emit light
containing many wavelengths.
 each wavelength within the composite
light signal travels at a different velocity
when propagating through glass.
 light rays that are simultaneously emitted
from an LED and propagated down an
optical fiber do not arrive at the far end
of the fiber at the same time
Radiation Losses
 are caused mainly by small bends and
kinks in the fiber
 Microbending
◦ occurs as a result of differences in the
thermal contraction rates between the core
and the cladding material
 Constant-radius bends
◦ are caused by excessive pressure and tension
and generally occur when fibers are bent
during handling or installation.
Modal Dispersion
 (sometimes called pulse spreading)
 is caused by the difference in the
propagation times of light rays that take
different paths down a fiber.
 can occur only in multimode fibers.
 can be reduced considerably by using
graded-index fibers and almost entirely
eliminated by using single-mode step-
index fibers
Coupling Losses
 are caused by imperfect physical
connections.
 can occur at any of the following three
types of optical junctions: light source-to-
fiber connections, fiber-to-fiber
connections, and fiber-to-photodetector
connections
Coupling Losses
 Junction Losses often caused by one of
the ff:
◦ lateral misalignment,
◦ gap misalignment, angular misalignment, and
◦ imperfect surface finishes
OPTICAL FIBER SYSTEM
LINK BUDGET
1. Cable losses.
Cable losses depend on cable length,
material, and material purity.
They are generally given in dB/km and can
vary between a few tenths of a dB to
several dB per kilometer.
OPTICAL FIBER SYSTEM
LINK BUDGET
2. Connector losses.
Mechanical connectors are sometimes
used to connect two sections of cable. If
the mechanical connection is not perfect,
light energy can escape, resulting in a
reduction in optical power. Connector
losses typically vary between a few tenths
of a dB to as much as 2 dB for each
connector.
OPTICAL FIBER SYSTEM
LINK BUDGET
3. Source-to-cable interface loss.
The mechanical interface used to house
the light source and attach it to the cable
is seldom perfect.
Therefore, a small percentage of optical
power is not coupled into the cable,
representing a power loss to the system
of several tenths of a dB.
OPTICAL FIBER SYSTEM
LINK BUDGET
4. Cable-to-light detector interface loss.
The mechanical interface used to house
the light detector and attach it to the
cable is also not perfect and, therefore,
prevents a small percentage of the power
leaving the cable from entering the light
detector.
This, of course, represents a loss to the
system usually of a few tenths of a dB.
OPTICAL FIBER SYSTEM
LINK BUDGET
5. Splicing loss.
If more than one continuous section of
cable is required, cable sections
can be fused together (spliced). Because
the splices are not perfect, losses ranging
from a couple tenths of a dB to several
dB can be introduced to the signal.
OPTICAL FIBER SYSTEM
LINK BUDGET
6. Cable bends.
When an optical cable is bent at too large an
angle, the internal characteristics of the cable
can change dramatically.
If the changes are severe, total reflections for
some of the light rays may no longer be
achieved, resulting in refraction.
Light refracted at the core/cladding interface
enters the cladding, resulting in a net loss to
the signal of a few tenths of a dB to several
dB.
9. The bandwidth of optical fiber.
a. 900 MHz b. 900 PHz
c. 900 THz d. 900 EHz
9. The bandwidth of optical fiber.
a. 900 MHz b. 900 PHz
c. 900 THz d. 900 EHz
10. If a mirror is used to reflect light, the
reflected light angle is _____ as the
incident angle.
a. smaller b. larger
c. the same d. independent
10. If a mirror is used to reflect light, the
reflected light angle is _____ as the
incident angle.
a. smaller b. larger
c. the same d. independent
11. What is the specific path the light takes
in an optical fiber, corresponding to a
certain angle and number of reflection?
a. mode
b. grade
c. numerical aperture
d. dispersion
11. What is the specific path the light takes
in an optical fiber, corresponding to a
certain angle and number of reflection?
a. mode
b. grade
c. numerical aperture
d. dispersion
12. Is the width of the range of wavelengths
emitted by the light source.
a. bandwidth
b. chromatic dispersion
c. spectral width
d. beamwidth
12. Is the width of the range of wavelengths
emitted by the light source.
a. bandwidth
b. chromatic dispersion
c. spectral width
d. beamwidth
13. Which theory states that light wave
behaves as if it consists of many tiny
particles?
a. Huygen's theory
b. Wave theory of light
c. Nyquist theory
d. Quantum theory
13. Which theory states that light wave
behaves as if it consists of many tiny
particles?
a. Huygen's theory
b. Wave theory of light
c. Nyquist theory
d. Quantum theory
14. When a beam of light enters one
medium from another, which quantity will
not change?
a. direction b. speed
c. frequency d. wavelength
14. When a beam of light enters one
medium from another, which quantity will
not change?
a. direction b. speed
c. frequency d. wavelength
15. Dispersion is used to describe the
a. splitting of white light into its component
colors
b. propagation of light in straight lines
c. bending of a beam when it goes from one
medium to another
d. bending of beam light when it strikes a
mirror
15. Dispersion is used to describe the
a. splitting of white light into its component
colors
b. propagation of light in straight lines
c. bending of a beam when it goes from one
medium to another
d. bending of beam light when it strikes a
mirror
16.______ is caused by the difference in
the propagation times of light rays that
take different paths down a fiber.
a. material dispersion
b. wavelength dispersion
c. modal dispersion
d. delay dispersion
16.______ is caused by the difference in
the propagation times of light rays that
take different paths down a fiber.
a. material dispersion
b. wavelength dispersion
c. modal dispersion
d. delay dispersion
17. Photodiodes used as fiber optic
detectors are
a. unbiased to generate a voltage same as a
solar cell
b. forward bias
c. reversed bias
d. thermoelectrically cooled
17. Photodiodes used as fiber optic
detectors are
a. unbiased to generate a voltage same as a
solar cell
b. forward bias
c. reversed bias
d. thermoelectrically cooled
Light Sources in Optic Fiber
 LEDs (Light Emitting Diodes)
 A p-njunction diode, usually made from a
semiconductor material such as aluminum
gallium-arsenide (AlGaAs) or gallium-
arsenide-phosphide (GaAsP).
 LEDs emit light by spontaneous
emission—light is emitted as a result of
the recombination of electrons and holes
Light Sources in Optic Fiber
 ILD (Injection Laser Diodes)
 is similar to the LED.
 below a certain threshold current, an ILD
acts similarly to an LED.
 above the threshold current, an ILD
oscillates; lasing occurs.
ILD vs LED
 Advantages of ILD vs LED
◦ ILDs can be used at higher bit rates than LEDs.
◦ ILDs generate monochromatic light, which
reduces chromatic or wavelength dispersion.
 Disadvantages of ILD vs LED
◦ ILDs are typically 10 times more expensive than
LEDs.
◦ Because ILDs operate at higher powers, they
typically have a much shorter lifetime than LEDs.
◦ ILDs are more temperature dependent than
LEDs.
LIGHT DETECTORS
 PIN diode
 a depletion-layer photodiode and is probably
the most common device used as a light
detector in fiber-optic communications
systems
 APD (Avalanche Photodiode)
 is a pipn structure
 are more sensitive than PIN diodes and
require less additional amplification
 disadvantages of APDs are relatively long
transit times and additional internally
generated noise
Characteristics of Light
Detectors
1. Responsivity
A measure of the conversion efficiency of
a photodetector.
It is the ratio of the output current of a
photodiode to the input optical power
and has the unit of amperes per watt.
Responsivity is generally given for a
particular wavelength or frequency.
Characteristics of Light
Detectors
2. Dark current
The leakage current that flows through a
photodiode with no light input.
Thermally generated carriers in the diode
cause dark current.
Characteristics of Light
Detectors
3. Transit time.
The time it takes a light-induced carrier
to travel across the depletion region of a
semiconductor.
Characteristics of Light
Detectors
4. Spectral response.
The range of wavelength values that a
given photodiode will respond.

5. Light sensitivity.
The minimum optical power a light
detector can receive and still produce a
usable electrical output signal.
18. What type of fiber has the highest
modal dispersion?
a. step-index multimode
b. graded index multimode
c. step-index single mode
d. graded index mode
18. What type of fiber has the highest
modal dispersion?
a. step-index multimode
b. graded index multimode
c. step-index single mode
d. graded index mode
OPTICAL FIBER
CLASSIFICATIONS
 Single-Mode Step-Index Optical
Fiber
 A single-mode step-index fiber has a
central core that is significantly smaller in
diameter than any of the multimode
cables.
 the diameter is sufficiently small that
there is essentially only one path that light
may take as it propagates down the cable.
OPTICAL FIBER
CLASSIFICATIONS
 Multimode Step-Index Optical Fiber
 are similar to the single-mode step-index
fibers except the center core is much
larger with the multimode configuration.
 has a large light-to-fiber aperture and,
consequently, allows more external light
to enter the cable
OPTICAL FIBER
CLASSIFICATIONS
 Multimode Graded-Index Optical
Fiber
 fibers are characterized by a central core
with a nonuniform refractive index.
 the cable’s density is maximum at the
center and decreases gradually toward
the outer edge.
 Light rays propagate down this type of
fiber through refraction rather than
reflection.
Single Mode Step-Index Advantages
 1. Minimum dispersion: All rays
propagating down the fiber take
approximately the same path; thus, they
take approximately the same length of
time to travel down the cable.
Consequently, a pulse of light entering the
cable can be reproduced at the receiving
end very accurately.
Single Mode Step-Index Advantages
 2. Because of the high accuracy in
reproducing transmitted pulses at
the receive end, wider bandwidths and
higher information transmission rates
(bps) are possible with single-mode step-
index fibers than with the other types of
fibers.
Single Mode Step-Index
DIsadvantages
1. Because the central core is very small,
it is difficult to couple light into and out of
this type of fiber. The source-to-fiber
aperture is the smallest of all the fiber types.
2. Again, because of the small central
core, a highly directive light source,
such as a
laser, is required to couple light into a single-
mode step-index fiber.
3. Single-mode step-index fibers are
expensive and difficult to manufacture.
Multimode Step-Index Advantages
 1. Multimode step-index fibers are
relatively inexpensive and simple to
manufacture.
 2. It is easier to couple light into and out
of multimode step-index fibers because
they have a relatively large source-to-fiber
aperture.
Multimode Step-Index
Disadvantages
1. Light rays take many different paths
down the fiber, which results in large
differences in propagation times.
Because of this, rays traveling down this
type of fiber have a tendency to spread
out.
Consequently, a pulse of light propagating
down a multimode step-index fiber is
distorted more than with the other types
of fibers.
Multimode Step-Index
Disadvantages
 2.The bandwidths and rate of
information transfer rates possible
with this type of
 cable are less than that possible with the
other types of fiber cables.
Multimode Graded-Index Fiber
 Essentially, there are no outstanding
advantages or disadvantages of this type
of fiber.
 Multimode graded-index fibers are easier
to couple light into and out of than single-
mode step-index fibers but are more
difficult than multimode step-index fibers.
 considered an intermediate fiber
compared to the other fiber types.
19. Laser light is _____ emission.
a. coherent
b. stimulated
c. spontaneous
d. coherent and stimulated
19. Laser light is _____ emission.
a. coherent
b. stimulated
c. spontaneous
d. coherent and stimulated
20. A dielectric waveguide for the
propagation of electromagnetic energy at
light frequencies.
a. stripline b. microstrip
c. laser beam d. fiber optics
20. A dielectric waveguide for the
propagation of electromagnetic energy at
light frequencies.
a. stripline b. microstrip
c. laser beam d. fiber optics
21. Is a non-coherent light source for
optical communications system.
a. ILD b. LED
c. APD d. PIN diode
21. Is a non-coherent light source for
optical communications system.
a. ILD b. LED
c. APD d. PIN diode
22. Which of the following is used as an
optical receiver in fiber optics
communications?
a. APD b. Tunnel diode
c. Laser diode d. LED
22. Which of the following is used as an
optical receiver in fiber optics
communications?
a. APD b. Tunnel diode
c. Laser diode d. LED
23. Which of the following is not a common
application of fiber-optic cable?
a. computer networks
b. long-distance telephone systems
c. closed circuit TV
d. consumer TV
23. Which of the following is not a common
application of fiber-optic cable?
a. computer networks
b. long-distance telephone systems
c. closed circuit TV
d. consumer TV
24. Total internal reflection takes place if the
light ray strikes the interface at an angle
with what relationship to the crucial
angle?
a. less than
b. greater than
c. equal to
d. zero
24. Total internal reflection takes place if the
light ray strikes the interface at an angle
with what relationship to the crucial
angle?
a. less than
b. greater than
c. equal to
d. zero
25. The operation of a fiber-optic cable is
based on the principle of
a. refraction b. reflection
c. dispersion d. absorption
25. The operation of a fiber-optic cable is
based on the principle of
a. refraction b. reflection
c. dispersion d. absorption
26. Which of the following is not a common
type of the fiber-optic cable?
a. single-mode step-index
b. multimode graded-index
c. single-mode graded-index
d. multimode step-index
26. Which of the following is not a common
type of the fiber-optic cable?
a. single-mode step-index
b. multimode graded-index
c. single-mode graded-index
d. multimode step-index
27. Cable attenuation is usually expressed
in terms of
a. loss per foot
b. dB/km
c. intensity per mile
d. voltage drop per inch
27. Cable attenuation is usually expressed
in terms of
a. loss per foot
b. dB/km
c. intensity per mile
d. voltage drop per inch
28. The core of a fiber optic is surrounded
by
a. wire braid shield b. Kevlar
c. cladding d. plastic insulation
28. The core of a fiber optic is surrounded
by
a. wire braid shield b. Kevlar
c. cladding d. plastic insulation
29. The speed of light in a plastic
component to the speed of light in air is
a. slower b. faster
c. the same d. either lower or faster
29. The speed of light in a plastic
component to the speed of light in air is
a. slower b. faster
c. the same d. either lower or faster
30. Which of the following is not a major
benefit of fiber-optic cable?
a. immunity from interference
b. no electrical safety problems
c. excellent data security
d. lower cost
30. Which of the following is not a major
benefit of fiber-optic cable?
a. immunity from interference
b. no electrical safety problems
c. excellent data security
d. lower cost
31. The main benefit of light-wave
communications over microwave or any
other communications media is
a. lower cost
b. better security
c. wider bandwidth
d. freedom from interference
31. The main benefit of light-wave
communications over microwave or any
other communications media is
a. lower cost
b. better security
c. wider bandwidth
d. freedom from interference
32. Which of the following is not part of the
optical spectrum?
a. infrared b. ultraviolet
c. visible color d. X-rays
32. Which of the following is not part of the
optical spectrum?
a. infrared b. ultraviolet
c. visible color d. X-rays
33. The wavelength of visible light extends
from
a. 0.8 to 1.6 µm b. 400 to 750 nm
c. 200 to 660 nm d. 700 to 1,200 nm
33. The wavelength of visible light extends
from
a. 0.8 to 1.6 µm b. 400 to 750 nm
c. 200 to 660 nm d. 700 to 1,200 nm
34. Refraction is the
a. bending of light waves
b. reflection of light waves
c. distortion of light waves
d. diffusion of light waves
34. Refraction is the
a. bending of light waves
b. reflection of light waves
c. distortion of light waves
d. diffusion of light waves
35. The ratio of the speed of light in air to
the speed of light in another substance is
called the
a. speed factor
b. index of reflection
c. index of refraction
d. dielectric constant
35. The ratio of the speed of light in air to
the speed of light in another substance is
called the
a. speed factor
b. index of reflection
c. index of refraction
d. dielectric constant
36. Which type of fiber optic cable is the
most widely used?
a. single-mode step-index
b. multimode step-index
c. single-mode graded-index
d. multimode graded-index
36. Which type of fiber optic cable is the
most widely used?
a. single-mode step-index
b. multimode step-index
c. single-mode graded-index
d. multimode graded-index
37. Which type of fiber-optic cable is best
for very high speed data?
a. single-mode step-index
b. multimode step-index
c. single-mode graded-index
d. multimode graded-index
37. Which type of fiber-optic cable is best
for very high speed data?
a. single-mode step-index
b. multimode step-index
c. single-mode graded-index
d. multimode graded-index
38. Which type of fiber-optic cable has the
least modal dispersion?
a. single-mode step-index
b. multimode step-index
c. single-mode graded-index
d. multimode graded-index
38. Which type of fiber-optic cable has the
least modal dispersion?
a. single-mode step-index
b. multimode step-index
c. single-mode graded-index
d. multimode graded-index
39. Most fiber-optic light sources emit light
in which spectrum?
a. visible b. infrared
c. ultraviolet d. X-ray
39. Most fiber-optic light sources emit light
in which spectrum?
a. visible b. infrared
c. ultraviolet d. X-ray
40. Both LEDs and ILDs operate correctly
with
a. forward bias b. reverse bias
c. neither a or b d. either a or b
40. Both LEDs and ILDs operate correctly
with
a. forward bias b. reverse bias
c. neither a or b d. either a or b
41. Which of the following is the fastest
light sensor?
a. PIN photodiode
b. photovoltaic diode
c. phototransistor
d. avalanche photodiode
41. Which of the following is the fastest
light sensor?
a. PIN photodiode
b. photovoltaic diode
c. phototransistor
d. avalanche photodiode
42. Photodiodes operate properly with
a. forward bias b. reverse bias
c. neither A or B d. either A or B
42. Photodiodes operate properly with
a. forward bias b. reverse bias
c. neither A or B d. either A or B
43. Which fiber-optic system is better?
a. 3 repeaters b. 8 repeaters
c. 11 repeaters d. 20 repeaters
43. Which fiber-optic system is better?
a. 3 repeaters b. 8 repeaters
c. 11 repeaters d. 20 repeaters
44. What parameter of light detector
determines the range or system length
that can be achieved for a given
wavelength?
a. transit time b. spectral response
c. dark current d. responsitivity
44. What parameter of light detector
determines the range or system length
that can be achieved for a given
wavelength?
a. transit time b. spectral response
c. dark current d. responsitivity
45. What is the unit of responsitivity?
a. ampere/volt b. ampere/watt
c. watt/ampere d. volt/ampere
45. What is the unit of responsitivity?
a. ampere/volt b. ampere/watt
c. watt/ampere d. volt/ampere
46. _____ is applied to protect core and
cladding of the fiber.
a. insulation b. fiber insulation
c. silica d. polymer jacket
46. _____ is applied to protect core and
cladding of the fiber.
a. insulation b. fiber insulation
c. silica d. polymer jacket
47. The energy of the photon is
a. directly proportional to its bandwidth
b. directly proportional to the Planck's
constant
c. directly proportional to Boltzmann's
constant
d. inversely proportional to the Planck's
constant
47. The energy of the photon is
a. directly proportional to its bandwidth
b. directly proportional to the Planck's
constant
c. directly proportional to Boltzmann's
constant
d. inversely proportional to the Planck's
constant
48. Refractive index of diamond.
a. 1.0 b. 1.5 c. 1.8 d. 2.0
48. Refractive index of diamond.
a. 1.0 b. 1.5 c. 1.8 d. 2.0
49. What is the unit of light wavelength?
a. micrometer b. angstroms
c. mils d. fathom
49. What is the unit of light wavelength?
a. micrometer b. angstroms
c. mils d. fathom
50. Reflections in many directions.
a. diffuse reflection b. diffraction
c. scattering d. dispersion
50. Reflections in many directions.
a. diffuse reflection b. diffraction
c. scattering d. dispersion
Problem Solving
1. What is the photon energy for an
infrared wave with frequency of 10^12
Hz?
a. 10.6 x 10^34 joules
b. 6.63 x 10^-34 joules
c. 6.63 x 10^-22 joules
d. 10.6 x 10^22 joules
1. What is the photon energy for an
infrared wave with frequency of 10^12
Hz?
a. 10.6 x 10^34 joules
b. 6.63 x 10^-34 joules
c. 6.63 x 10^-22 joules
d. 10.6 x 10^22 joules
2. The numerical aperture of a fiber if the
angle of acceptance is 15 degrees, is
a. 0.17 b. 0.26 c. 0.50 d. 0.75
2. The numerical aperture of a fiber if the
angle of acceptance is 15 degrees, is
a. 0.17 b. 0.26 c. 0.50 d. 0.75
3. The laser frequency when the light has
the wavelength 800 nm is
a. 375 x 10^12 Hz b. 475 x 10^15 Hz
c. 375 x 10^9 Hz d. 375 x 10^18
Hz
3. The laser frequency when the light has
the wavelength 800 nm is
a. 375 x 10^12 Hz b. 475 x 10^15 Hz
c. 375 x 10^9 Hz d. 375 x 10^18
Hz
4. A fiber-optic has a loss of 15 dB/km. The
attenuation in a cable 1,000 ft long is
a. 4.57 dB b. 9.3 dB c. 24 dB d. 49.2 dB
4. A fiber-optic has a loss of 15 dB/km. The
attenuation in a cable 1,000 ft long is
a. 4.57 dB b. 9.3 dB c. 24 dB d. 49.2 dB
5. Fiber-optic cables with attenuations of
1.8, 3.4, 5.9, and 18 dB are linked together.
The total loss is
a. 7.5 dB
b. 19.8 dB
c. 29.1 dB
d. 650 dB
5. Fiber-optic cables with attenuations of
1.8, 3.4, 5.9, and 18 dB are linked together.
The total loss is
a. 7.5 dB
b. 19.8 dB
c. 29.1 dB
d. 650 dB
6. The product of the bit rate and distance
of a fiber-optic system is 2 Gbits km/s.
What is the maximum rate at 5 km?
a. 100 Mbits/s b. 200 Mbits/s
c. 400 Mbits/s d. 1000 Mbits/s
6. The product of the bit rate and distance
of a fiber-optic system is 2 Gbits km/s.
What is the maximum rate at 5 km?
a. 100 Mbits/s b. 200 Mbits/s
c. 400 Mbits/s d. 1000 Mbits/s
7. Light from vacuum enters a certain
material and has a velocity of 89.92x10^6
m/s in the said material. What is the index
of refraction?
a. 3.34 b. 3.15 c. 3.51 d. 3.43
7. Light from vacuum enters a certain
material and has a velocity of 89.92x10^6
m/s in the said material. What is the index
of refraction?
a. 3.34 b. 3.15 c. 3.51 d. 3.43
8. An optical fiber has refractive indices of
1.35 and 1.21 respectively. Determine the
acceptance angle.
A. 37.42 b. 39.74 c. 36.77 d. 5.67
8. An optical fiber has refractive indices of
1.35 and 1.21 respectively. Determine the
acceptance angle.
A. 37.42 b. 39.74 c. 36.77 d. 5.67
9. A photodiode has a responsivity of
0.4A/W. What optical power is required
to produce a current of 500nA?
a. 2.5uW b. 5.3 uW
c. 1.25uW d. 4.1uW
9. A photodiode has a responsivity of
0.4A/W. What optical power is required
to produce a current of 500nA?
a. 2.5uW b. 5.3 uW
c. 1.25uW d. 4.1uW
10. What is the wavelength in angstrom of a
light frequency of 3.45 x 10^14 Hz?
a. 3.5x10^3 m b. 4.7x10^3 m
c. 7.8x10^3 m d. 8.7x10^3 m
10. What is the wavelength in angstrom of a
light frequency of 3.45 x 10^14 Hz?
a. 3.5x10^3 m b. 4.7x10^3 m
c. 7.8x10^3 m d. 8.7x10^3 m
11. Determine the number of modes of an
optical fiber if it has an acceptance angle
of 13.26 and radius of core of 2.5um using
1550 nanometer light source.
a. 1 b. 3 c. 6 d. 8
11. Determine the number of modes of an
optical fiber if it has an acceptance angle
of 13.26 and radius of core of 2.5um using
1550 nanometer light source.
a. 1 b. 3 c. 6 d. 8
12. What is lowest frequency that can be
detected by a photodiode with an energy
cap of 1.2eV?
a. 3.5x10^15 Hz b. 4.1x10^14 Hz
c. 2.9x10^14 Hzd. 1.67 x10^15 Hz
12. What is lowest frequency that can be
detected by a photodiode with an energy
cap of 1.2eV?
a. 3.5x10^15 Hz b. 4.1x10^14 Hz
c. 2.9x10^14 Hzd. 1.67 x10^15 Hz
Cellular Communication
 Evolution to cellular networks –
communication anytime, anywhere

 radio communication was invented by Nokola Tesla and Guglielmo Marconi: in

1893, Nikola Tesla made the first public demonstration of wireless (radio)
telegraphy; Guglielmo Marconi conducted long ditance (over see) telegraphy 1897
 in 1940 the first walkie-talkie was used by the US military
 in 1947, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain from AT&T’s Bell Labs invented the
transistor (semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals)
 AT&T introduced commercial radio comm.: car phone – two way radio link to the
local phone network
 in 1979 the first commercial cellular phone service was launched by the Nordic
Mobile Telephone (in Finland, Sweden, Norway, Denmark).
 Cellular systems generations

 1G (first generation) – voice-oriented systems based on

analog technology; ex.: Advanced Mobile Phone Systems
(AMPS) and cordless systems
 2G (second generation) - voice-oriented systems based on
digital technology; more efficient and used less spectrum than
1G; ex.: Global System for Mobile (GSM) and US Time
Division Multiple Access (US-TDMA)
 3G (third generation) – high-speed voice-oriented systems
integrated with data services; ex.: General Packet Radio
Service (GPRS), Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA), 3.5G
– WCDMA (Wide CDMA), HSPA (High Speed Packet Access)
 4G (fourth generation) –based on Internet protocol networks
and will provide voice, data and multimedia service to
subscribers ex.: LTE (Long Term Evolution)
 Frequency reuse

 is a method used by service providers to improve the

efficiency of a cellular network and to serve millions of
subscribers using a limited radio spectrum
 is based on the fact that after a distance a radio wave gets
attenuated and the signal falls bellow a point where it can
no longer be used or cause any interference
 a transmitter transmitting in a specific frequency range will
have only a limited coverage area
 beyond this coverage area, that frequency can be reused by
another transmitter
 Network Cells

 the entire network coverage area is divided into cells based

on the principle of frequency reuse
 a cell = basic geographical unit of a cellular network; is the
area around an antenna where a specific frequency range is
used; is represented graphically as a hexagonal shape, but in
reality it is irregular in shape
 when a subscriber moves to another cell, the antenna of the
new cell takes over the signal transmission
 a cluster is a group of adjacent cells, usually 7 cells; no
frequency reuse is done within a cluster
 the frequency spectrum is divided into subbands and each
subband is used within one cell of the cluster
 in heavy traffic zones cells are smaller, while in isolated zones
cells are larger
Network cells (2)
Types of cells
 macrocell – their coverage is large (aprox. 6 miles in
diameter); used in remote areas, high-power
transmitters and receivers are used
 microcell – their coverage is small (half a mile in
diameter) and are used in urban zones; low-powered
transmitters and receivers are used to avoid
interference with cells in another clusters
 picocell – covers areas such as building or a tunnel
Other cellular concepts
 handoff = moving a call from one zone (from the
transmitter-receiver from one zone) to another zone
due to subscriber’s mobility
 roaming = allowing the subscriber to send/receive calls
outside the service provider’s coverage area
 Multiple access schemes

Frequency Division Multiple Time Division Multiple Access Code Division Multiple Access
Access
- each subscriber is assigned a time - each subscriber is assigned a code
- when the subscriber enters slot to send/receive a data burst; is which is used to multiply the signal
another cell a unique frequency is used in digital systems sent or received by the subscriber
assigned to him; used in analog
systems
The control channel
 this channel is used by a cellular phone to indicate its
presence before a frequency/time slot/code is allocated
to him
Cellular services
 voice communication
 Short Messaging Service (SMS)
 Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS)
 Global Positioning System (GPS)
 Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) – to access the
Internet
Cellular network components
 Cellular network components (2)

 BTS (Base Transceiver Station) – main component of a cell and

it connects the subscribers to the cellular network; for
transmission/reception of information it uses several antennas
spread across the cell
 BSC (Basic Station Controller) – it is an interface between
BTSs and it is linked to BTSs by cable or microwave links; it
routes calls between BTSs; it is also connected to the MSC
 MSC (Mobile Switching Center) or MTSO (Mobile Telephone
Switching Office) – the coordinator of a cellular network, it is
connected to several BSCs, it routes calls between BSCs; links
the cellular network with other networks like PSTN through
fiber optics, microwave or copper cable
 Components of a cellular phone (MSU –
Mobile Subscriber Unit)

 radio transceiver – low power radio transmitter and

receiver
 antenna, usually located inside the phone

 control circuitry – formats the data sent to and from the

BTS; controls signal transmission and reception
 man-machine interface – consists from a keypad and a
display; is managed by the control circuitry
 Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) – integrated circuit card
that stores the identity information of subscriber
 battery, usually Li-ion, the power unit of the phone
 Setting up a call process

 when powered on, the phone does not have a frequency/ time
slot/code assigned to it yet; so it scans for the control channel
of the BTS and picks the strongest signal
 then it sends a message (including its identification number) to
the BTS to indicate its presence
 the BTS sends an acknowledgement message back to the cell
phone
 the phone then registers with the BTS and informs the BTS of
its exact location
 after the phone is registered to the BTS, the BTS assigns a
channel to the phone and the phone is ready to receive or
make calls
 Making a call process

 the subscriber dials the receiver’s number and sends it to the

BTS
 the BTS sends to its BSC the ID, location and number of the
caller and also the number of the receiver
 the BSC forwards this information to its MSC
 the MSC routes the call to the receiver’s MSC which is then
sent to the receiver’s BSC and then to its BTS
 the communication with the receiver’s cell phone is
established
 Receiving a call process

 when the receiver’ phone is in an idle state it listens for the

control channel of its BTS
 if there is an incoming call the BSC and BTS sends a message
to the cells in the area where the receiver’s phone is located
 the phone monitors its message and compares the number
from the message with its own
 if the numbers matches the cell phone sends an
acknowledgement to the BTS
 after authentication, the communication is established
between the caller and the receiver
Global System for Mobile Communication
(GSM)
 GSM characteristics

 previous standard in cellular communication were

restrictive
 GSM – global digital standard for cellular phones that
offered roaming facility
 first named Groupe Special Mobile and used in Europe; then
usage extended to other continents
 GSM operate in frequency bands: 900MHz, 1800 MHz, 1900
MHz
 GSM provides voice and data services
 Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) card

 SIM – a memory card (integrated circuit) holding identity

information, phone book etc.
 GSM system support SIM cards
 other systems, like CDMA do not support SIM cards, but
have something similar called Re-Usable Identification Module
(RUIM)
 International Mobile Equipment Identity
(IMEI) key

 IMEI – a unique 15 digit number identifying each phone, is

incorporated in the cellular phone by the manufacturer
 IMEI ex.: 994456245689001
 when a phone tries to access a network, the service provider
verifies its IMEI with a database of stolen phone numbers; if it
is found in the database, the service provider denies the
connection
 the IMEI is located on a white sticker/label under the battery,
but it can also be displayed by typing *#06# on the phone
 International Mobile Subscriber Identity
(IMSI) key

 IMSI – a 15-digit unique number provided by the service

provider and incorporated in the SIM card which identifies
the subscriber
 IMSI enables a service provider to link a phone number
with a subscriber
 first 3 digits of the IMSI are the country code
 Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity
(TMSI) key

 TMSI – is a temporary number, shorter than the IMSI,

assigned by the service provider to the phone on a
temporary basis
 TMSI key identifies the phone and its owner in the cell it is
located; when the phone moves to a different cell it gets a
new TMSI key
 as TMSI keys are shorter than IMSI keys they are more
efficient to send
 TMSI key are used for securing GSM networks
GSM architecture
Base Station Subsystem (BSS)
 HLR,VLR and EIR registers

 Home Location Register (HLR) - is a database maintained by

the service provider containing permanent data about each
subscriber (i.e. location, activity status, account status, call
forwarding preference, caller identification preference)
 Visitor Location Register (VLR) – database that stores
temporary data about a subscriber; it is kept in the MSC of
the of the area the subscriber is located in; when the
subscriber moves to a new area the new MSC requests this
VLR from the HLR of the old MSC
 Equipment Identity Register (EIR) – database located near
the MSC and containing information identifying cell phones
 Authentication Center (AuC)

 1st level security mechanism for a GSM cellular network

 is a database that stores the list of authorized subscribers of
a GSM network
 it is linked to the MSC and checks the identity of each user
trying to connect
 also provides encryption parameters to secure a call made in
the network
 GSM Mobile Switching Center (MSC)

 is a switching center of the GSM network; coordinates BSCs

linked to it
Cellular Communications
1. A cell in the cellular telephone system
means
A. A power source B. Small area
C. Large area D. Service area
1. A cell in the cellular telephone system
means
A. A power source B. Small area
C. Large area D. Service area
2. What is the linking point between cell
phone and regular telephone?
A. Base station B. Control office
C. C.O. D. MTSO
2. What is the linking point between cell
phone and regular telephone?
A. Base station B. Control office
C. C.O. D. MTSO
3. What is the typical power output of a
cellular phone?
A. 5 W B. 10 W C. 1 W D. 3 W
3. What is the typical power output of a
cellular phone?
A. 5 W B. 10 W C. 1 W D. 3 W
4. When a single cell is divided into smaller
cells that process is called
A. Cell splitting B. Cell division
C. Reuse D. Cell sharing
4. When a single cell is divided into smaller
cells that process is called
A. Cell splitting B. Cell division
C. Reuse D. Cell sharing
5. The first cell shape is a
A. Square B. Circle
C. Rectangle D. Triangle
5. The first cell shape is a
A. Square B. Circle
C. Rectangle D. Triangle
6. In order to provide 100% coverage
without overlap, cellular telephone system
can use
A. Hexagon cell shape B. Triangle
C. Rectangular D. All of the above
6. In order to provide 100% coverage
without overlap, cellular telephone system
can use
A. Hexagon cell shape B. Triangle
C. Rectangular D. All of the above
7. When the message is transferred from
one cell site transmitter to another cell
site transmitter as the caller crosses a
boundary __________ process takes
place.
A. Shifting B. Hand off
C. Give off D. Turn over
7. When the message is transferred from
one cell site transmitter to another cell
site transmitter as the caller crosses a
boundary __________ process takes
place.
A. Shifting B. Hand off
C. Give off D. Turn over
8. Provides interface between the mobile
telephone switching office and the mobile
units.
A. Database B. Cell site
C. Terrestrial link D. Radio transmitter
8. Provides interface between the mobile
telephone switching office and the mobile
units.
A. Database B. Cell site
C. Terrestrial link D. Radio transmitter
9. A phone call over the cellular network
actually requires
A. Simplex channels
B. Half duplex channels
C. Full duplex channels
D. Full/full duplex
9. A phone call over the cellular network
actually requires
A. Simplex channels
B. Half duplex channels
C. Full duplex channels
D. Full/full duplex
10. The combination of the mobile cellular
phone and the cell-site radio equipment is
known as
A. forward link
B. base transceiver station
C. air interface
D. base station controller
10. The combination of the mobile cellular
phone and the cell-site radio equipment is
known as
A. forward link
B. base transceiver station
C. air interface
D. base station controller
11. A protected database that holds a copy
of the secret key stored in each
subscriber’s SIM card
a. HLR b.VLR c. AuC d. EIR
11. A protected database that holds a copy
of the secret key stored in each
subscriber’s SIM card
a. HLR b.VLR c. AuC d. EIR
12. The Subscriber’s Identity Module (SIM)
Card for GSM contains a/n _____
number that identifies the user to the
network along with other user and
security information.
a. IMEI b. IMSI c. ESN d.MIN
12. The Subscriber’s Identity Module (SIM)
Card for GSM contains a/n _____
number that identifies the user to the
network along with other user and
security information.
a. IMEI b. IMSI c. ESN d.MIN
13. A GSM security measure which is
designed to prevent eavesdropping of
user data on the radio path
a. IMSI b. TMSI c. IMEI d. MSRN
13. A GSM security measure which is
designed to prevent eavesdropping of
user data on the radio path
a. IMSI b. TMSI c. IMEI d. MSRN
14. A database used for management of
mobile subscriber.
a. HLR b.VLR c. MSC d. EIR
14. A database used for management of
mobile subscriber.
a. HLR b.VLR c. MSC d. EIR
15. The database for good and known IMEI’s
a. White b. Black c. Grey d. red
15. The database for good and known IMEI’s
a. White b. Black c. Grey d. red
16. A digital technology that uses a low power
signal spread across a wide bandwidth. With
this technology, a phone call is assigned a
code instead of a certain frequency. Using
the identifying code and a low power signal,
a large number of callers can use the same
group of channels.
a.Time Division Multiple Access
b.Pulse Code Division Multiplexing
c.Pulse Multiple Access
d.Code Division Multiple Access
16. A digital technology that uses a low power
signal spread across a wide bandwidth. With
this technology, a phone call is assigned a
code instead of a certain frequency. Using
the identifying code and a low power signal,
a large number of callers can use the same
group of channels.
a.Time Division Multiple Access
b.Pulse Code Division Multiplexing
c.Pulse Multiple Access
d.Code Division Multiple Access
17. It is a database that contains
information about the identity of mobile
equipment that prevents calls from stolen,
unauthorized, or defective mobile
stations.
A. Equipment Identity Register
B. Authentication Center
C. Home Location Register
D.Visitor Location Register
17. It is a database that contains
information about the identity of mobile
equipment that prevents calls from stolen,
unauthorized, or defective mobile
stations.
A. Equipment Identity Register
B. Authentication Center
C. Home Location Register
D.Visitor Location Register
18. The MTSO is responsible for ______.
a. Connecting the cell with the telephone
central office
b. Assigning channels for retransmission
c. Billing function
d. All of the above
18. The MTSO is responsible for ______.
a. Connecting the cell with the telephone
central office
b. Assigning channels for retransmission
c. Billing function
d. All of the above
19. The GSM system uses the 890- to 915-
and 935- to 960-MHz frequency range.
There are 124 25 kHz channels spaced
200 kHz intervals. The modulation is
______.
a. GMSK b. QPSK
c. MSK d. GFSK
19. The GSM system uses the 890- to 915-
and 935- to 960-MHz frequency range.
There are 124 25 kHz channels spaced
200 kHz intervals. The modulation is
______.
a. GMSK b. QPSK
c. MSK d. GFSK
20. The actual voice channel where mobile
users communicate directly with other
mobile or wireline subscriber through the
base station
A. control channel B. forward channel
C. reverse channel D. voice channel
20. The actual voice channel where mobile
users communicate directly with other
mobile or wireline subscriber through the
base station
A. control channel B. forward channel
C. reverse channel D. voice channel
21. Transmission from mobile stations to
the base stations is called
A. forward link B. reverse link
C. control link D. user link
21. Transmission from mobile stations to
the base stations is called
A. forward link B. reverse link
C. control link D. user link
22. In the GSM system, a "smart card"
containing all user information, which is
inserted into the phone before use.
A. IMSI B. IMEI C. IMTS D. SIM
22. In the GSM system, a "smart card"
containing all user information, which is
inserted into the phone before use.
A. IMSI B. IMEI C. IMTS D. SIM
23. When a signal from a mobile cellular
unit drops below a certain level, what
action occurs?
A. The unit is "handed off" to a closer cell.
B. The call is terminated.
C. The MTSO increases power level.
D. The cell site switches antenna.
23. When a signal from a mobile cellular
unit drops below a certain level, what
action occurs?
A. The unit is "handed off" to a closer cell.
B. The call is terminated.
C. The MTSO increases power level.
D. The cell site switches antenna.
24. Transmission of data in two directions
on a channel by using different time slots
for each directions.
A. time-division multiplexing
B. time-division multiple access
C. time-division duplexing
D. time-division
24. Transmission of data in two directions
on a channel by using different time slots
for each directions.
A. time-division multiplexing
B. time-division multiple access
C. time-division duplexing
D. time-division
25. A channel used for transferring control
and diagnostic information between
mobile users and a central cellular
telephone switch through the base
stations.
A. forward channel B. voice channel
C. control channel D. reverse channel
25. A channel used for transferring control
and diagnostic information between
mobile users and a central cellular
telephone switch through the base
stations.
A. forward channel B. voice channel
C. control channel D. reverse channel
26. A database in the PCS network that
stores information about subscribers in a
particular MTSO serving area
A. international mobile subscriber
identification
B. visitor location register
C. home location register
D. authentication register
26. A database in the PCS network that
stores information about subscribers in a
particular MTSO serving area
A. international mobile subscriber
identification
B. visitor location register
C. home location register
D. authentication register
27. Decreasing co-channel interference
while increasing capacity by using
directional antenna is called ____.
A. clustering B. splitting
C. partitioning D. sectoring
27. Decreasing co-channel interference
while increasing capacity by using
directional antenna is called ____.
A. clustering B. splitting
C. partitioning D. sectoring
28. Using a cellular phone outside your
home service area
a. Long Distance Communications
b. Roaming
c. Global Communications
d. Jamming
28. Using a cellular phone outside your
home service area
a. Long Distance Communications
b. Roaming
c. Global Communications
d. Jamming
29. The optimum cell-site radius is:
a. 2 km c. as small as possible
b. 0.5 km d. none of the above
29. The optimum cell-site radius is:
a. 2 km c. as small as possible
b. 0.5 km d. none of the above
Problem Solving
1. A province in the Philippines has an area
of 2000 sq km. it has to be covered by
cellular mobile telephone service using
cells with a radius of 2 km. assuming
hexagonal cells, find the number of cell
sites needed.
a. 154 b. 144 c. 145 d. 132
1. A province in the Philippines has an area
of 2000 sq km. it has to be covered by
cellular mobile telephone service using
cells with a radius of 2 km. assuming
hexagonal cells, find the number of cell
sites needed.
a. 154 b. 144 c. 145 d. 132
2. Compute the co-channel reuse of a
cluster size of 3.
a. 2 b. 4 c. 3 d. 5
2. Compute the co-channel reuse of a
cluster size of 3.
a. 2 b. 4 c. 3 d. 5
3. What is the channel capacity if seven
macrocells with channels per cell are split
into four minicell?
a. 450 b. 449 c. 448 d. 447
3. What is the channel capacity if seven
macrocells with channels per cell are split
into four minicell?
a. 450 b. 449 c. 448 d. 447
4. Determine the channel capacity for a
cellular telephone which is comprised of
three macrocells with 16 channels per
cell.
a. 48 b. 54 c. 16 d. 3
4. Determine the channel capacity for a
cellular telephone which is comprised of
three macrocells with 16 channels per
cell.
a. 48 b. 54 c. 16 d. 3
5. Determine the co-channel reuse ratio for
a cell radius of 0.5 mi separated from the
nearest co-channel cell by the distance of
5 mi.
a. 13 b. 11 c. 5 d. 10
5. Determine the co-channel reuse ratio for
a cell radius of 0.5 mi separated from the
nearest co-channel cell by the distance of
5 mi.
a. 13 b. 11 c. 5 d. 10
6. A cellular system is capable of coping
with handoffs once every 2 minutes.
Suppose this system is in the city with
maximum car speeds of 65km/hr. What is
the maximum cell radius for this urban
system?
A. 1.08 km B. 3 km
C. 5 km D. 2 km
6. A cellular system is capable of coping
with handoffs once every 2 minutes.
Suppose this system is in the city with
maximum car speeds of 65km/hr. What is
the maximum cell radius for this urban
system?
A. 1.08 km B. 3 km
C. 5 km D. 2 km
TRANSMISSION
LINES
TRANSMISSION LINES (TL)

Impedance matching circuits designed to deliver RF

power from the transmitter to the antenna and
maximum signal from the antenna to the receiver.

System of conductors having a precise geometry and

arrangement which is used to transfer power from the
source to load with minimum loss.
BASIC TYPES

TRANSVERSE
ELECTROMAGNETIC HIGHER ORDER
TRANSMISSION LINE
(TEM) TL

PARALLEL WIRE LINE

COAXIAL LINE WAVEGUIDE
STRIPLINE OPTICAL FIBERS
MICROSTRIP
TRANSVERSE
ELECTROMAGNETIC

PARALLEL WIRE LINE

(BALANCED LINE)

Made up of two parallel

conductors spaced from
one another by a distance Note: the term
of ½ inch up to several balanced means that
same current flows in
inches. each wire with respect
to ground, although
the currents are 180
deg out of phase
PARALLEL WIRE
(TWO CATEGORIES)

TWIN LEAD OPEN WIRE

TRANSVERSE
ELECTROMAGNETIC

COAXIAL LINE (UNBALANCED TL)

Consists of a solid
center conductor
surrounded by a plastic
insulator (Teflon).

One conductor is
connected to ground
TRANSVERSE
ELECTROMAGNETIC
STRIPLINE (FLAT METALLIC
GROUND PLANE)

A microwave transmission line

constructed of a center conductor
suspended between parallel
conductive ground planes

Evolved from coaxial cable

TRANSVERSE
ELECTROMAGNETIC

MICROSTRIP

Consists of the top

strip and its image
below the ground
plane.

Analogous to parallel
wire line.
HIGHER ORDER TL

WAVEGUIDES OPTICAL FIBERS

TRANSMISSION LINE
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
PRIMARY CONSTANTS

Series Resistance
(Ω/m)

Series Inductance
(H/m)

Shunt Capacitance (F/m)

Shunt Conductance
(S/m)
TRANSMISSION LINE
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
SECONDARY CONSTANTS

Zo = characteristic impedance
Impedance measured at the source when the line is
infinite (Ω)

δ = propagation constant
Used to express the signal loss and phase shift per
section along a transmission line.
TRANSMISSION LINE
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

AT RADIO AT AUDIO
FREQUENCY: FREQUENCY:
XL >> R R>>XL
1/XC>>G G>>1/XC

WHERE:
XL=ωL=2πfL Xc=1/ ω C=1/2πfC
CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE
(ZO)
Zo = √(Z/Y); Ω
Where:
Z = series impedance / section
Z = R + jωL(Ω /m)
Y = shunt admittance / section
Y = G + jωC
Therefore:
CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE
(ZO)

AT RADIO AT AUDIO
FREQUENCIES FREQUENCIES
(R=G=0): (ωL=ωC=0):

Zo = L Ω Zo = R Ω
C G
CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE
(ZO)
FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE
CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE OF A
TRANSMISSION LINE:

GEOMETRY
OF THE
SIZE
CONDUCTOR
SPACING
DIELECTRIC CONSTANT OF THE INSULATOR
CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE
(ZO)

ZO OF PARALLEL WIRE LINE

Zo = 276 log (s/r) ; Ω

Zo = 120 ln (2s/d) ; Ω
Note: r = d/2

Typical Zo: 300 Ω (twin lead)

(range: 150 - 600Ω)
CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE
(ZO)

ZO OF COAXIAL CABLE

Zo = (138/√k) log (b/a) Ω

Zo = (60/√k) ln (D/d);Ω
Note: D = 2b ; d = 2a

Where: k = dielectric constant

Typical Zo: RG11 = 50 Ω ; RG58 = 75 Ω
(range: 40-150Ω)
PROPAGATION CONSTANT (δ)

δ = √(ZY)
δ = √(R + jωL)(G + jωC)
δ = α+jβ

Where:
α = attenuation coefficient
β = Phase shift coefficient
VELOCITY FACTOR
The ratio of the transmission speed in the
transmission line and the transmission
speed in free space

V = Vf(c) V = c/√k Vf= 1/√k

Where: NOTE:
v = velocity in a Velocity factors in transmission
medium line vary from approximately 0.8
to 0.6.
c = velocity of light in The velocity factor of coax is
free space typically in the 0.6 to 0.7 range.
k = dielectric constant Open-wire and twin lead have a
of the medium velocity near 0.8
TRANSMISSION LINE LENGTH

Physical length
◦ Ex: s = 10 km
Length in terms of λ (1° = βs)
◦ Ex: s = 0.25 λ β = 360 °/ λ
Electrical length
◦ Ex: l ° = 120 ° ;
TRANSMISSION LINE LOSSES

RADIATION LOSSES
Transmission line acts as an antenna if the separation of the
conductors in appreciable fraction of a wavelength
Increased with frequency

CONDUCTOR HEATING OR I2R

LOSSES
Proportional to current and inversely proportional to
characteristic impedance
Increase of frequency because of skin effect
TRANSMISSION LINE LOSSES
DIELECTRIC HEATING
Proportional to the voltage across the dielectric and
inversely proportional to the characteristic impedance for
an power transmitted.

Increase with frequency for solid dielectric lines because

of gradually worsening properties with increasing
frequency.
WHEN SIGNAL REACHES THE
LOAD
The entire signal is
absorbed by the load

ZL = Zo
matched line

non-resonant
(Resistive)
Flat Line
WHEN SIGNAL REACHES THE
LOAD
A portion of the
signal is
absorbed by the
load and some is
returned to the
source.

ZL ≠ Zo
ZL = R ± jX
WHEN SIGNAL REACHES THE
LOAD

The entire signal is

reflected back to the
source.
ZL = 0 (short);
Zo = ∞ (open);
ZL = ± jX
(pure reactance)
REFLECTION COEFFICIENT
Vector quantity that represents the ratio of
the reflected voltage to the incident voltage.

Γ = VR / VI = IR / II
0 ≤ │Γ │ ≤ 1
Γ = (ZL – ZO) / (ZL+ZO)
Γ = (Vmax – Vmin) / (Vmax + Vmin)
REFLECTION COEFFICIENT

At matched line; ZL = Zo
Γ = 0; most desirable

At short circuited line; ZL = 0

Γ = -1

At open circuited line; ZL = infinity

Γ =1
REFLECTION COEFFICIENT

The reciprocal of the reflection coefficient is

called the return loss (RL)

RL = 1 / Γ
RLdB = 20 log(1 / Γ)
STANDING WAVE RATIO

The ratio of the voltage (or current) at a point of

maximum amplitude to a point of minimum amplitude.

A measure of the mismatch between the load and the

line.
STANDING WAVE RATIO

SWR = Vmax / Vmin

SWR = (1+│Γ │) / (1-│Γ │)
SWR ≥ 1

When the line is terminated in a purely resistive load:

SWR = ZO / ZL ; ZO>>ZL
SWR = ZL / ZO ; ZL>>ZO
STANDING WAVE RATIO

Note: the higher the SWR, the greater is the

mismatch between the line and the load

At matched line, ZL = ZO
SWR = 1 ; most desirable
STANDING WAVE RATIO

λ/
At short circuited 2
λ/
line, 4

ZL = 0
SWR = ∞
STANDING WAVE RATIO
a. Quarter wavelength
Minimum current
Maximum voltage
Maximum impedance

b. Half wavelength
Maximum current
Minimum Voltage
Minimum Impedance
STANDING WAVE RATIO

λ/
2
λ/
At open circuited 4

line,
ZL = ∞
SWR = ∞
STANDING WAVE RATIO
a. Quarter wavelength
Maximum current
Minimum voltage
Minimum impedance

b. Half wavelength
Minimum current
Maximum Voltage
Maximum Impedance
STANDING WAVE RATIO

If a load is connected to a transmission line and

matching is required, a λ/4 transformer may be
used if ZL is purely resistive.

ZOT = √ZOZL
TRANSMISSION LINE SECTIONS AND
THEIR LC EQUIVALENTS

TRANSMISSION EQUIVALENT
LINE CIRCUIT

λ/
4
TRANSMISSION LINE
COMPONENTS
DOUBLE STUB

Adjustable stub which

could cope with
frequency or load
impedance changes and
still give adequate
matching
TRANSMISSION LINE
COMPONENTS
Choke, sleeve, bazooka
BALUN A circuit element used to connect a
balanced line to an unbalanced line or
antenna
TRANSMISSION LINE
COMPONENTS

DIRECTIONAL COUPLER

Used to measure the

power being delivered
to a load or an
antenna through a
transmission line.
TRANSMISSION LINE
COMPONENTS

REFLECTOMETER

A device used to
measure standing wave.
TRANSMISSION LINE
COMPONENTS
SMITH CHART
A Polar impedance diagram,
which consists of two sets of
circles, or arcs of circles, which
are so arranged that various
important quantities connected
with mismatched transmission
lines may b plotted an evaluated
fairly easily.
QUESTIONS

1. A system of conductors used to convey

electric power or signal between two or
more points

A. Channels
B. Optical cables
C. Transmission lines
D. Waveguides
QUESTIONS

2. These conductors are uniformly spaced by

insulators. They have low losses at low
and medium frequencies and are
economical to construct and maintained

A. Coaxial cables
B. Open-wire transmission lines
C. Optical cables
D. Waveguides
QUESTIONS

3. To prevent radiation losses and interference

from external sources, the inner conductor
of this transmission line is completely
enclosed with a metal sheath or braid

A. Coaxial cables
B. Open-wire transmission line
C. Optical cables
D. Waveguides
QUESTIONS

4. The term “balance line” means that

A.Both conductors carry currents that flow

in opposite directors
B.Conductors present equal capacitance to
ground
C.One conductor is connected to ground
D.A and B above
QUESTIONS

5. The characteristic impedance of a

transmission line is determined by:

A. Its operating frequency

B. Its length
C. Its physical size and arrangement
D. The signal applied at the input terminal
QUESTIONS
6. The distributed parameters of the
transmission line are: the series
resistance; the series inductance; the
shunt capacitance and the shunt
conductance. What parameter was
determined due to dielectric losses?

A. Series resistance
B. Series inductance
C. Shunt capacitance
D. Shunt conductance
QUESTIONS

7. Shunt capacitance was determined due to:

A. Conductors were closed to each other

B. The length and diameter of the
conductors
C. Dielectric losses
D. Flux linkage
QUESTIONS

8. Series resistance was determined due to:

A.Conductors were closed to each other

B.The length and diameter of the conductors
C.Dielectric losses
D.Flux linkages
QUESTIONS

9. At radio frequencies, a line is considered

lossless because:

A. Characteristic impedance is determined

by its physical structure
B. Inductive reactance is much more than
the resistance
C. Capacitive reactance is much larger then
the shunt conductance
D. B and C above
QUESTIONS

10. Determine the characteristic impedance of

a transmission line which has a capacitance
of 30pF/m and an inductance of 75nH/m

A.5 Ω
B.50 Ω
C.500 Ω
D.5 KΩ
QUESTIONS
11. The Zo of an open-wire balance line is
determined from its physical structure. [
Zo = 276 log (2S/d) where S is the center-
to-center distance of the conductors and d
is the diameter of the conductor ]. At what
condition is the Zo minimum?

A. S=d
B. S = 2d
C. d = 2S
D. S >> d
QUESTIONS

12. If a change in the dielectric material

decreases the capacitance, the
characteristic impedance is:

A. Kept constant
B. Decreased
C. Increased
D. Halved
QUESTIONS

13. All power applied at the input of the line

will be absorbed by the load if:

A. ZO > ZL
B. ZO < ZL
C. ZL = ZO
D. ZO = ZL
QUESTIONS

14. When ZL ≠ ZO, the power sent down the

line toward the load is called the

A. The incident power

B. The reflected power
C. The power dissipation
D. The carrier power
QUESTIONS

15. When mismatch is great, this power

actually cause damage to the transmitter
or the line itself.

A. The incident power

B. The reflected power
C. The power dissipation
D. The carrier power
QUESTIONS

16. A resultant wave due to the combination

of incident and reflected wave

A. Electromagnetic wave
B. Sine wave
C. Standing wave
D. Current
QUESTIONS

17. If the load impedance matches the

characteristic impedance of the line, there
are _____ standing waves

A. More
B. Less
C. No
D. Ten (10)
QUESTIONS

18. A measure of the mismatch between line

and load impedance is called as

A. Reflection coefficient
B. Standing wave ratio
C. Loss
D. Standing waves
QUESTIONS

19. At matched condition, SWR is equal to

A. Zero
B. One
C. 100
D. Infinite
QUESTIONS

20. The ratio of the reflected voltage to the

incident voltage on the transmission line is
termed as

A. Reflection coefficient
B. Standing wave ratio
C. Loss
D. Standing waves
QUESTIONS

21. A shorted or opened line will have a

reflection coefficient of

A. Zero
B. One
C. 100
D. Infinite
QUESTIONS

22. The minimum voltage along a

transmission line is 260V, while the
maximum voltage is 390V. The SWR is

A. 0.67
B. 1.0
C. 1.2
D. 1.5
QUESTIONS

23. At UHF and microwave frequencies,

transmission lines are commonly used as

A. Antenna
B. Coupler
C. Resonant circuit
D. Transformer
QUESTIONS

24. The time required for a wave to propagate

on a transmission line will depend on the
value of its

A.Series resistance and shunt conductance

B.Series inductance and shunt capacitance
C.Series resistance and series inductance
D.Shunt conductance and shunt capacitance
QUESTIONS

25. The current (and voltage) distribution

along a matched line vary _____ with
distance

A. Linearly
B. Inversely
C. Exponentially
D. Logarithmically
QUESTIONS

26. a measure of how the voltage or current

decreases with distance along the line

A. Propagation constant
B. Attenuation constant
C. Phase constant
D. SWR
QUESTIONS

27. The value remains constant for any

length of wire

A. Characteristic impedance
B. Inductance
C. Capacitance
D. Propagation constant
QUESTIONS

28. A measure of the difference in phase

between the input and output current or
voltage

A. Attenuation constant
B. Reflection constant
C. Phase constant
D. Characteristic impedance
QUESTIONS

29. To match a 300Ω transmission line to a

100Ω load, the impedance of the quarter-
wave transformer is

A. 1.732 KΩ
B. 20 Ω
C. 200 Ω
D. 173.21 Ω
QUESTIONS

30. An attenuation of 1 Neper is equal to _____

dB

A. 8.686 x 10-3
B. 8.686
C. 4.343
D. 0.115
QUESTIONS

31. Characteristic impedance and load

impedance must be matched in order to
transfer

A. Maximum power to the load

B. Maximum current to the load
C. Maximum voltage to the load
D. Maximum standing waves
QUESTIONS

32. The ratio of reflected voltage to the forward

or incident voltage is termed as

A. Reflection coefficient
B. SWR
C. VSWR
D. Propagation constant
QUESTIONS

33. A more common method of expressing the

degree of mismatch between Zo and ZL is
return loss. [Return Loss = 20 log (1/
reflection coefficient)]. Echoes may result if
return loss is

A. Too high
B. Too low
C. Zero
D. Infinite
QUESTIONS

34. The points along the line where the

incident and reflected voltages are in
phase are points of

A. Maximum voltage and maximum current

B. Minimum voltage and minimum current
C. Maximum voltage and minimum current
D. Minimum voltage and maximum current
QUESTIONS

35. When incident and reflected voltages are

out of phase, the voltages are

A. Added
B. Neutralized
C. Multiplied
D. Divided
QUESTIONS

36. If the distance of separation between

centers of two parallel wires is increased,
the characteristic impedance will

A. Increased
B. Decreased
C. Be the same
D. Doubled
QUESTIONS

37. Which statement is true?

A. Increasing the length of the wire will

increase the SWR
B. Decreasing the length of the wire will
increase the SWR
C. Increasing the length of the wire will
decrease the SWR
D. Changing the length of the wire will
have no effect on the SWR
QUESTIONS

38. The characteristic impedance of balance

wire varies from

A. 150 to 600 Ω
B. 40 to 150 Ω
C. 75 to 400 Ω
D. 75 to 600 Ω
QUESTIONS

39. The characteristic impedance of coaxial

cable varies from

A. 150 to 600 Ω
B. 40 to 150 Ω
C. 75 to 400 Ω
D. 75 to 600 Ω
QUESTIONS

40. Often inserted in telephone lines at

spacing as close as 1 (1.6km), to
counteract the capacitance of the line and
thus make the line impedance more
closely equivalent to a pure resistance

A. Amplifiers
B. Transformer
C. Equalizer
D. Loading coils
QUESTIONS

41. When the receiving end of the wire is an

open circuit, it is a point of

A. Maximum current and zero voltage

B. Maximum voltage and zero current
C. Zero current and zero voltage
D. Maximum voltage and maximum current
QUESTIONS

42. If a wire is terminated on a short circuit,

the end of the wire is a point of

A.Maximum current and zero voltage

B.Maximum voltage and zero current
C.Zero current and zero voltage
D.Maximum voltage and maximum current
QUESTIONS

43. The principal method of reducing noise

and crosstalk to low value on open-wire
lines

A. Filter method
B. Scrambling
C. Feedback
D. Transposing
QUESTIONS

44. Used for VHF antennas

A. RG-214/U
B. RG-59/U
C. RG-11/U
D. RG-58/U
QUESTIONS

45. Which transmission line has the highest

attenuation?

A. RG-214/U
B. RG-59/U
C. RG-11/U
D. Twin lead
QUESTIONS

46. Which transmission line has the lowest

attenuation?

A. RG-214/U
B. RG-59/U
C. RG-11/U
D. Twin lead
QUESTIONS

47. A widely used transmission line, in which

two stranded wires are separated by a flat
continuous plastic insulators

A. RG-214/U
B. RG-59/U
C. RG-11/U
D. Twin lead
QUESTIONS

48. Used for TV antennas; cable TV; and HF

antennas

A. RG-214/U
B. RG-59/U
C. RG-11/U
D. RG-58/U
QUESTIONS

49. An open-wire line has an attenuation of

2.4 dB per 100 ft. The attenuation for 275
ft is

A. 2.4 dB
B. 3.3 dB
C. 4.8 dB
D. 6.6 dB
QUESTIONS

50. The ratio of velocity of propagation in the

transmission line and the velocity of
propagation in free space

A. Wavelength constant
B. Propagation constant
C. Velocity factor
D. Velocity of light
QUESTIONS

51. This transmission line is used in

microwave circuit. It consists of a narrow,
flat conductor sandwiched between
dielectric boards whose outside surfaces
are coated with conductor

A. Stripline
B. Microstrip
C. Waveguide
D. Coax
QUESTIONS

52. Is a narrow, flat conductor on a single

dielectric board whose opposite face is
metallized, much like an ordinary printed-
circuit board. It is also used in microwave
circuits

A. Stripline
B. Microstrip
C. Waveguide
D. Coax
QUESTIONS

53. Can be placed at either end of a

transmission line to convert between 72-
Ω unbalanced line to a 300-Ω balance line

A. Stub
B. Resonant circuit
C. Balun
D. Coupler
QUESTIONS

54. Power loss due to increased effective

resistance of a conductor at microwave
frequencies due to skin effect.

A. Conduction loss
B. Radiation loss
C. Dielectric loss
D. Corona
QUESTIONS

55. When does a transmission line terminated

in a short look like a short to the source?

A. At quarter-wavelength
B. At half-wavelength
C. At less than λ/5
D. At less than λ/4
QUESTIONS

56. How many cycles of a 1 MHz wave can a

6=mile transmission line accommodate?

A. 60 cycles
B. 6 cycles
C. 16.67 cycles
D. 32.26 cycles
QUESTIONS

57. A transmission line has a capacitance of

25 pF / ft. and an inductance of 0.15 µh /
ft. Determine the characteristic impedance
of the line.

A. 77.5 Ω
B. 50 Ω
C. 75 Ω
D. 100 Ω
QUESTIONS

58. For a transmission line giving a maximum

rms voltage reading of 50 V at one point
and a minimum rms voltage reading 25 V
at another point. What is the VSWR of the
line?

A. 2
B. 4
C. 1
D. 5
QUESTIONS

59. Two 2-mm-diameter wires held 6cm apart

center-to-center has a characteristic
impedance of______.

A. 500 Ω
B. 250 Ω
C. 491 Ω
D. 75 Ω
QUESTIONS

60. Does minimum or maximum VSWR

indicate best matching of antenna to
transmission line?

A. Minimum
B. Maximum
C. Either a or b
D. Neither a or b
QUESTIONS

61. If two towers of a 1100-kHz array are

separated by 120°, What is the tower
separation in feet?

A. 321
B. 48
C. 298
D. 412
QUESTIONS

62. What is the reflection coefficient of an

open-circuited transmission line?

A. 1
B. -1
C. 0
D. Infinity
QUESTIONS

63. The reflection coefficient on a

transmission line is 1/3, what is the SWR?

A. 0
B. 3
C. 2
D. 4
QUESTIONS

64. Indicate the false statement. The SWR on

a transmission line is infinity: the line is
terminated in a/an

A. Short circuit
B. Open circuit
C. Pure reactance
D. Complex impedance
QUESTIONS

65. Coaxial lines are used on those systems

operating_______.

A. Below 2 GHz
B. At 300 MHz
C. Above 10 kHz
D. Above 10 Ghz
QUESTIONS

66. What is the SWR along a transmission line

having a characteristic impedance of 75 Ω
and a load impedance of 300 Ω?

A. 0.25
B. 4
C. 2
D. 0.5
QUESTIONS

67. Who developed the Smith Chart?

A. Philip H. Smith
B. James N. Smith
C. Philip S. Chart
D. Gunn Chart
QUESTIONS

68. An electronic equipment used to measure

standing wave ratio.

A. Reflectometer
B. Wavemeter
C. Altimeter
D. Multimeter
QUESTIONS

69. What is the phase shift corresponding to

λ / 4 in standing wave pattern?

A. 0°
B. 40°
C. 90°
D. 180°
QUESTIONS

70. For a parallel resonant circuit, a λ / 4

stub must be_____ at the ends.

A. Open
B. Shorted
C. Loaded
D. complex