Basic Biostatistics

Introduction to Biostatistics

By: Mesfin Kote

7 February 2019 1
Learning Objectives
• Define Statistics and Biostatistics

• Identify the branches of statistics

• Enumerate the importance and limitations of statistics

• Define and Identify the different types of data and understand

why we need to classifying variables

• Identify the different methods of data collection and criterion

that we use to select a method of data collection

• Define a questionnaire, identify the different parts of a

questionnaire and indicate the procedures to prepare a
questionnaire
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 Introduction to biostatistics

 Statistics: is the science of gaining information from data

through

 Collection

 Presentation

 organization

 Analysis and drawing conclusion (inferences) from data.

 Statistics is the summary of information (data) in a meaningful

fashion, and its appropriate presentation.
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 Introduction …biostatistics

 Biostatistics is the segment of statistics that deals with data

arising from biological processes or medical experiments.

 When the data being analyzed are derived from the biological
sciences and medicine, we use the term biostatistics.

 Has central role in medical investigations

 Concerned with interpretation of biological data & the

communication of information about data.
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Branches of Statistics

1. Descriptive statistics:

 refers to the different methods applied in order to organize,

summarize and present data in a form which will make them
easier to analyze and interpret.

 (tabulation, graphical presentation, computation of

averages as well as measures of variability).

 Ways of organizing and summarizing data.

 Helps to identify the general features and trends in a set of

data and extracting useful information.

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Branches of Biostatistics …
2. Inferential statistics:

 Is the process of generalizing or drawing conclusions about

the target population on the basis of results obtained from a
sample.

 The inferences are drawn from particular properties of

sample to particular properties of population.

 Inferential statistics builds upon descriptive statistics.

 Example: Principles of probability, estimation, hypothesis

testing, etc. 6
 Statistical Methods

Biostatistics

Descriptive Statistics Inferential Statistics

collection making inferences

organizing hypothesis testing
summarizing determining relationship
presenting of data making the prediction

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 Uses of biostatistics

Provide a way of organizing information

Assessment of health status

Health program evaluation

Resource allocation

Magnitude of association

Strong vs weak association between exposure and

outcome

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Uses of biostatistics …

Assessing risk factors

Cause & effect relationship

E.g. Evaluation of a new vaccine or drug

How effective is the vaccine (drug)?

Is the effect due to chance or some bias?

Drawing of inferences

Information from sample to population

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Limitations of statistics

It deals with only those subjects of inquiry that are capable
of being quantitatively measured and numerically expressed.

It deals with aggregates of facts and no importance is

attached to individual items

Statistical data are only approximately and not

mathematically correct.

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 Variable
• Variable: A variable is a characteristic of a person, object, or
phenomenon that can take on different values.
• Any aspect of an individual or object that is measured (e.g.
BP) or recorded (e.g. age, sex) and takes any value.

• There may be one variable in a study or many.

• Variables can be broadly classified into:

– Categorical (or Qualitative) and

– Numerical variables(or Quantitative).

 1. Categorical variable:

 A variable which can not be measured in quantitative form

but can only be sorted by name or categories

 Not able to be measured as we measure height or weight

 The notion of magnitude is absent or implicit.

 Categorical variable is divided into two:
I) Nominal:
• The simplest type of data, in which the values fall into un-
ordered categories or classes
• Uses names, labels or symbols to assign each measurement.
– Examples: Blood type, sex, race, marital status
II) Ordinal
• The observations are classified into categories that can be
ordered in an ascending series.
• Although non-numerical, can have a natural ordering
• The spaces or intervals b/n the categories are not necessarily
equal. Examples: Patient status, cancer stages, social class
 2. Quantitative variable:
 A variable that can be measured or counted and
expressed numerically.

 Height, weight, # of children, etc.

 Has the notion of magnitude.

Quantitative variable is divided into two:
1. Discrete: when numbers represent actual measurable
quantities rather than mere labels.
• Discrete data are restricted to taking only specified values
often integers or counts that differ by fixed amounts.
– E.g. the number of episodes of diarrhoea a child has had in
a year.

• Characterized by gaps or interruptions in the values.

• Both the order and magnitude of the values matter.

• The values are not just labels, but are actual measurable
quantities.
2. Continuous variable:
 represent measurable quantities but are not restricted to taking
on certain specific values i.e. fractional values are possible

 It can have an infinite number of possible values in any given

interval.

 Both the magnitude and the order of the values matter

 Does not possess the gaps or interruptions

 E.g. Weight, Height, etc.

 SUMMARY

Types of Variable

Qualitative Quantitative
or categorical measurement

Nominal Ordinal Discrete Continuous

(not ordered) (ordered) (count data) (real-valued)
e.g. ethnic e.g. response to e.g. # of e.g. height
group treatment admissions

Measurement scales
 Definition of terms
 Data: Information collected from the source

 Census: Complete enumeration of the population

 Sampling: The technique of selecting representative portion of the entire

population

Data:
Numbers which can be measurements or can be obtained by counting

The raw material for statistics

Can be obtained from:

 Routinely kept records , Surveys , Counting

 Experiments , Reports

 Observation 18
 Sources of Data
1. Primary sources of data: it needs the involvement of the
researcher himself. Census and sample survey are sources of
primary types of data.
2. Secondary sources of data: In this case data were obtained
from already collected sources like newspaper, magazines,
CSA, DHS, hospital records and existing data like;
 Mortality reports
 Morbidity reports
 Epidemic reports
 Reports of laboratory utilization (including laboratory test results)
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 Techniques of Primary Data collection

Data collection is a crucial stage in the planning and

implementation of a study

If the data collection has been superficial, biased or

incomplete, data analysis becomes difficult, and the research
report will be of poor quality.

Therefore, we should concentrate all possible efforts on

developing appropriate tools, and should test them several times.

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 Techniques of Primary Data collection …

Observation:

 is a technique that involves systematically selecting, watching and

recording behavior and characteristics of living beings, objects or
phenomena.

 It can be undertaken in different ways;

 Participant observation: The observer takes part in the situation he

or she observes.

 Non-participant observation: The observer watches the situation,

openly or concealed, but does not participate. 21
 Techniques of Primary Data collection

 Observations can give additional, more accurate information

on behavior of people than interviews or questionnaires

 Observations can also be made on objects;

 For example, the presence or absence of a latrine and its state of
cleanliness may be observed.

 observation would be the major research technique

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 Techniques of Primary Data collection …

Interview (face-to-face):

 Is a data-collection technique that involves oral questioning

of respondents, either individually or as a group.

 Answers to the questions posed during an interview can be

recorded by:
 writing them down (either during the interview itself or immediately
after the interview) or

 by tape-recording the responses, or by a combination of both.

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 Techniques of Primary Data collection …

 Administered written questionnaire: is a data collection tool in

which written questions are presented that are to be answered by
the respondents in written form.
 It can be administered in different ways, such as by:
Sending questionnaires by mail with clear instructions on how to
answer the questions and asking for mailed responses;
Gathering all or part of the respondents in one place at one time,
giving oral or written instructions, and letting the respondents fill out
the questionnaires;
Hand-delivering questionnaires to respondents and collecting them
later

The questions can be either open-ended or closed 24

Techniques of Primary Data collection …

Focus group discussions:

 It allows a group of 8 - 12 informants to freely discuss a
certain subject with the guidance of a facilitator or reporter

In-depth interview:
 It is a conversion between the researcher and the subject
about the research area or topic.

It is designed to allow the respondent to tell their story in

their own way

Issues covered in detail; respondent leads the

interviews/sets the agenda; no fixed order 25
 Types of questions

• Depending on how questions are asked and recorded

we can distinguish two major possibilities:

1. Open-ended questions: (allowing for completely
open as well as partially categorized answers).

 It permit free responses which should be recorded in

the respondents' own words.

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 Types of questions…
Such questions are useful for obtaining in-
depth information on:
• facts with which the researcher is not very
familiar,
• opinions, attitudes and suggestions of
informants, or
• sensitive issues.

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 Types of questions …
• Example:

1. 'What is your opinion on the services

provided in the ANC?' (Explain why.)

2. 'What do you think are the reasons some

adolescents in this area start using drugs?

3. 'What would you do if you noticed that your

daughter (school girl) had a relationship with
a teacher?'
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 Types of questions …
• Advantage of open-ended questions
 Allow you to probe more deeply into issues of interest being
raised.
 Information provided in the respondents' own words might be
useful

• Risks of completely open-ended questions

 A big risk is incomplete recording of all relevant issues covered
in the discussion.
 Analysis is time-consuming and requires experience; otherwise
important data may be lost.
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 Types of questions …
2. Closed questions: have a list of possible options
or answers from which the respondents must
choose.

• Closed questions are most commonly used for

background variables such as age, marital status or
education, although in the case of age and
education you may also take the exact values and
categorize them during data analysis

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 Types of questions …

Example:
• ‘Women who have induced abortion should
be severely punished.’

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 Types of questions …
Advantages of closed ended questions
 It saves time
 Comparing responses of different groups, or of the
same group over time, becomes easier.
Risks of closed ended questions:
• In case of illiterate respondents, bias will be
introduce
• Many choices can be confusing
• Can't tell if respondent misinterpreted the question
• Fine distinctions may be lost
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