Work Measurement: Work Study TIME STUDY (Direct Time Study & Activity Sampling) Job Design Principles of Motion Study

7-1 Design of Work Systems
WORK MEASUREMENT
WORK STUDY
TIME STUDY (Direct Time Study & Activity Sampling)
JOB DESIGN
PRINCIPLES OF MOTION STUDY
WORK STUDY
A discipline that focus on better ways of performing
tasks (jobs)
- Involves ‘Time Study’ - control the output quantity by setting
standard time for tasks (in producing output).
- Involves ‘Work Design’ - to improve processing method.
Time Study
 Observation of labour standard time based on work sample.
 Average time is used in setting the standard.
Stopwatch time study
Historical times
Predetermined data
Work Sampling
 Requires a trained & experienced people for analysis

Time Study: The Eight Steps
1. Define the task (job) to be performed.

2. Divide (distribute) the task into specific elements.
3. Measure the ‘Times’ (average) for each element.
4. Record the times and performance ratings for each
element.
5. Compute the average cycle time (actual times
adjusted for unusual effects)
… Continued
6. Determine the normal time for each specific element
Normal time = (Average actual cycle time) x (Rating factor)
7. Compute the standard time:

Standard time = normal time
1- (Allowance factor)
8. Sum the normal times for each element to develop

a total standard time for the task.
Time ‘Allowance’
 Personal time allowance (4 ~ 7%) x total time

- For restroom, water fountain, etc.
 Delay allowance - based upon actual delays.
 Fatigue allowance (4%) x total time
- to compensate for physical or mental strain
(noise, tediousness, heat and humidity, abnormal
position).
Time Allowance (Examples)
1. Constant allowance
(a) Personal allowance 5%
(b) Basic fatigue allowance 4%
2.Variable allowances:
(a) Standing allowance 2%
(b) Abnormal position 2%
(i) Awkward (bending) 7%
(ii) Very awkward (lying, 3 %
stretching)
Direct Time Study (Example)

Work Element Cycle 1 Cycle 2 Cycle 3 Cycle 4 Cycle 5
(t1)s (t2)s (t3)s (t4)s (t5)s
Take glass 8 9 8 10 8
Place on jig and turn on the 10 12 10 11 12
machine
Milling Operations (automatic) 25 25 25 25 25
Lift glass and put it on conveyor 8 8 6 8 6
Time study data are taken by stop watch. Total allowance = 15% of the normal
time. Workers performance rating = 110%.
Determine the standard time.
Calculate the labor cost for each product if the worker’s wage is RM 3 per hour.

Element Cycle 1 Cycle 2 Cycle 3 Cycle 4 Cycle 5 Average Normal Std
time time
1 8 9 8 10 8 8.6 9.46 11.129
2 10 12 10 11 12 11 12.1 14.235
3 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25
4 8 8 6 8 6 7.2 7.92 9.318
Element 1: Average time = (8+9+8+10+8)/5 = 8.6 sec

Normal time = Average x Rating = 8.6 x 1.1 = 9.46 sec
Std time = Normal /(1-allowance) = 9.46 / (1 - 0.15) = 11.129 sec
Standard time:
Overall std time = 11.129+14.235+25+9.318 = 59.682 s
Labour cost per product :
 3.00 RM / hr  4
Worker' s wage     8.33(10) RM / sec
 3600s / hr 
Labor Cost per product  59.682 sec x 8.33(10)  4 RM / sec

 RM 0.0497
Work Sampling Time Studies

Work Sampling
 Standard time is set based on output and

% of productive time (spends on doing tasks)
 Involves observing worker at random times
over a long period (1 week)
 Advantages
 Less expensive than time studies
 Observer requires little training
 Disadvantages
 Ineffective with short cycles
Work Sampling
 Used for
 Ratio delay studies
 Setting labor standards
 Measuring worker performance
The Five Step
Work Sampling Procedure
1. Take a preliminary sample to obtain an

estimate of the parameter value
2. Compute the sample size required
3. Prepare a schedule for observing the
worker at appropriate times
4. Observe and record worker activities; rate worker
performance
5. Determine how workers spend their time (usually
as a percent)
Work Sampling Equations
(Total Working Time) x (% of working time) x (Rating)

Normal Time =
Number of Produce
Standard Time = Normal Time

1 – (Allowance)
Work Sampling (Example)

Status Tally Sum Percentage
Productive IIIII IIIII IIIII IIIII IIIII IIIII IIIII IIIII I 41 41/45 = 91%
Idle IIII 4 4/45 = 9%
Work sampling studies were conducted for 6 consecutive days at a factory.

A total of 45 observations were made during the 8 hour working period for
each day. The number of units managed to be produced are 3000 units for 1
week. The factory is operating 6 days a week. The data above are included
with rating and allowance of 97% and 15%.
Compute the standard time.

Work Sampling (Example)

Status Tally Sum Percentage
Productive IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII I 41 41/45 = 91%
Idle IIII 4 4/45 = 9%
hr min
Total observatio n time  8  60  6 day  2880 min
day hr
Standard Time, ST
Total observatio n time 1
  Productive %  Rating 
Total output 1  allowance
2880 min 1
Standard Time, ST   0.91 0.97 
3000 unit 1  0.15
min
 0.997
unit
Solved Problem
Work Elements Cycle 1 (t1) Cycle 2 (t2) Cycle 3 (t3) Cycle 4 (t4)
1 0.22 0.26 0.25 0.23

2 0.15 0.18 0.15 0.16
3 0.90 1.10 1.04 1.00
4 0.72 0.80 0.76 0.68
Data from stop watch (in minutes) of a manual assembly process time study. The
worker is rated at 108%. The allowances are 5% for fatigue, 6% for delay, and 6%
for personal relief. The worker’s salary is RM1000 per month.
a) Compute the standard time for the assembly process.
b) If the demand is 100,000 unit per month, estimate the number of operators
required for the assembly process. The company is operating 24 days per month
and a single 8 hour shift per day.
c) If the company can only manage to employ 18 workers, compute the over time
cost per day for each worker for the production of 100,000 units per month. Assume
only 15 workers are available for over time and the over time pay rate is 1.5 times of
the normal wage.
Solved Problem
Element Cycle 1 Cycle 2 Cycle 3 Cycle 4 Average Normal Std
Time Time
1 0.22 0.26 0.25 0.23 0.24 0.259 0.312
2 0.15 0.18 0.15 0.16 0.16 0.173 0.208
3 0.90 1.10 1.04 1.00 1.01 1.091 1.314
4 0.72 0.80 0.76 0.68 0.74 0.799 0.963
(a) Element 1
0.22  0.26  0.25  0.23
Average Time   0.24 min
4
Normal Time  Average Time x Rating  0.24 x 1.08  0.259 min
1 1
Standard Time  Normal Time x  0.259   0.32 min
1 - Allowance 1  0.17
Total Assembly Standard Time  0.312  0.208  1.314  0.963  2.797 min/unit
Solved Problem
(b)
hr day min min
Working time of 1 operator  1 8  24  60  11,520
day mth hr mth
min
11,520
mth unit
Monthly quantity produced by 1 operator   4,118.70
min mth
2.797
unit
unit
100,000
Monthly Demand mth  24.28  25
Number of operators required  
Capacity per operator 4118.70 unit
mth
Solved Problem
(c)
unit
Monthly quantity produced by 18 operators  4,118.70 18  74,137units
mth
unit
Monthly quantity shortage  100,000 - 74,137  25,863
mth
unit
25,863
Daily quantity shortage  mth  1077.6 unit
day day
24
mth
unit unit min

Time required to produced 1077.6  1077.6  2.797
day day unit
min hr
 3,014  50.234
day day
Solved Problem
Considerin g only 15 operators are available for over time work,
therefore over time hours for each operator per day
hr
50.234
day hr
  3.349
15 operator operator  day
RM
1,000
Normal wage  mth  5.208 RM
day hr hr
24 8
mth day
RM RM
Over time wage  1.5 x 5.208  7.812
hr hr
Over time cost per operator per day

hr RM RM
 3.349  7.812  26.162
operator  day hr operator  day
Tutorial 1
Process Description Average Time (min)
1 Manual 23
2 Manual 32
3 Automatic machine 9
4 Manual 8
Rating : 110%
Allowance: 20%
(a) Compute the standard time for each process.
(b) If the company has no problem with the availability of manpower,

recommend the maximum capacity for the factory for a 8 hour shift work.
Tutorial 1
(a)
Process Description Average Time Normal Std Time
(min) time (NT x (100/100-
(Avg x 1.1) 20))
1 Manual 23 25.3 31.625
2 Manual 32 35.2 44
3 Automatic 9 9 9
machine
4 Manual 8 8.8 11
(b)
Maximum capacity is determined by the bottleneck machine capacity.
= (8 hr/day )x ( 60 min/hr ) / ( 9 min/unit)
= 53.33 unit/day
Tutorial 2
Emirates Consultant conducted a work sampling studies for 5 consecutive days at an
assembly factory. A total of 48 observations were made during the 8 hour working
period for each day. The data collected during the 5 day studies is illustrated in Table
1. The whole assembly process is operating on 5 working days per week, 95% rating
and the company’s allowable allowances is 20%.
(i) Compute the standard time (min/unit) for the assembly process.
(ii) At peak demand period, the factory is normally required to produce 3,100 units per
week. If only 60% of the employee is willing to work over time, compute the average
overtime per day must be arranged in order to meet the peak demand.
Item Data
Total input over 5 days studies 2,500 unit
Assembly process at fast speed 35% of observations
Assembly process at moderate speed 45% of observations
Assembly process at slow speed 5% of observations
Production is stopped due to no operator 5% of observations
Production is stopped due to no material 10% of observations
Tutorial 2
(i)
Total observatio n time  8 x 5 x 60  2,400 min
2,400min (35  45  5) 1 min

Std Time    0.95   0.969
2500unit 100 1  0.2 unit
(ii)
unit
3,100
Peak Demand  wk  620 unit
day wk
5
wk
min
8 x 60
day unit
Capacity during normal 8 hours   495.4
min day
0.969
unit
Tutorial 2
Capacity shortage  620 - 495.4  124.6 unit/day
If all employees are forced to do over time, the over time hours
unit min min
 124.6  0.969  120.74
day unit day
Considerin g only 60% of employees are available for over time,

min
120.74
day min hour
then total overtime   201.23  3.35
0.6 day day
Job Design
Job design - determination of specific job:

 What will be done ( what to do ? )
 Who will do the job ( human / machine )
 How the job will be done ( processing method )
 Where the job will be done ( stand / sit )
 Ergonomics (comfort and safety factor)

Design of Work Systems
 Specialization
 Behavioral Approaches to Job Design
 Teams
 Methods Analysis
 Motions Study
 Working conditions
Job Design Success
Factors for Successful Job Design:

 Carried out by experienced personnel with sufficient
training
 Consistent with the goals (mission & vision) of the
organization
 In written form (flow chart, SOP)
 Understood and agreed by management -employees
Job Specialization
Advantages
For Management: For Labor:
1. Simplifies training 1 . Low education and

skill required
2. High productivity
2. Minimum
3. Low costs responsibilities
3. Little mental effort
required
Job Specialization
Disadvantages
For Management: For Labor:
1. Difficult to motivate quality 1. Monotonous work

( CQI )
2. Limited opportunity
for work promotion
2. Worker dissatisfaction,
absenteeism, 3. Little opportunity for

self-fulfillment
disruptive tactics
poor attention to quality
Behavioral Approaches to Job Design
 Job Enlargement
 Giving a worker a larger portion of the total
task by horizontal loading
 Job Rotation
 Workers periodically exchange jobs
 Job Enrichment
 Increasing responsibility for planning and
coordination tasks, by vertical loading
Enriched job
Planning
(participating in a cross-
function quality-
improvement team)
Enlarged job
Task #3 Present job Task #2
(lock printed circuit (manually insert and (adhere labels
board into fixture for solder six resistors) to printed
next operation) circuit board)
Control
(Test circuits after
assembly)
Job Design Continuum
Self-directed
teams
Increasing
Empowerment reliance on
employee’s
Enrichment contribution
and
Enlargement
increasing
responsibility
Specialization accepted by
employee
Job expansion
Figure 10.3
Self-Directed Teams
 Group of empowered individuals

working together to reach a
common goal
 May be organized for long-term or
short-term objectives
 Effective because
 Provide employee empowerment
 Ensure core job characteristics
 Meet individual psychological needs
Self-Directed Teams
To maximize effectiveness, managers should

 Ensure those who have acceptable
contributions are on the team
 Provide management support
 Ensure the necessary training
 Endorse clear objectives and goals
 Financial and non-financial rewards
Methods Analysis
 Methods analysis
 Analyzing how a job gets done
 Begins with overall analysis
 Moves to specific details

Methods Analysis
The need for methods analysis can come

from a number of different sources:
 Changes in tools and equipment
 Changes in product design
or new products
 Changes in materials or procedures
 Other factors (e.g. accidents, quality
problems)
Methods Analysis Procedure
1. Identify the operation to be studied

2. Get employee input
3. Study and document current method
4. Analyze the job
5. Propose new methods
6. Install new methods
7. Follow-up to ensure improvements
have been achieved
Analyzing the Job
 Flow process chart

 Chart used to examine the overall sequence
of an operation by focusing on movements
of the operator or flow of materials
 Worker-machine chart
 Chart used to determine portions of a work
cycle during which an operator and
equipment are busy or idle
Figure 7-2
FLOW PROCESS CHART ANALYST PAGE
Job Requisition of petty cash D. Kolb 1 of 2
Details of Method
Requisition made by department head
Put in “pick-up” basket
To accounting department
Account and signature verified
Amount approved by treasurer
Amount counted by cashier
Amount recorded by bookkeeper
Petty cash sealed in envelope
Petty cash carried to department
Petty cash checked against requisition
Receipt signed
Petty cash stored in safety box
Process
Flow
Chart
Figure 10.5 (c)

Flow Diagram
Welding
From
Storage bins
press
mach. Paint
shop
Mach. 3 Mach. 4
Machine 1
Mach. 2
Figure 10.5 (a)

Flow Diagram
Machine 4 Welding
Machine 3
Paint
Machine 2 shop
Machine 1
From
press Storage
mach. bins
Figure 10.5 (b)

Principles Of Motion Economy (Study)

 Use of Human Body
1. The two hands should begin as well as complete at the
same time.
2. The two hands should not be idle at the same time.
3. Motions of the arms should be made in opposite and
symmetrical directions simultaneously.
4. Momentum should be employed to assist the worker
wherever possible.
5. Work should be arranged to permit easy and natural
rhythm wherever possible.

 Arrangement Of The Work Place
1. There should be a definite and fixed place for all tools
and materials.
2. Tools, materials, and controls should be located close
and directly in front of the operator.
3. Gravity feed bins and containers should be used to
deliver material close to the point of use.
4. Drop deliveries should be used wherever possible.
5. The work place and chair should be arranged so that
alternate sitting and standing at work are easily
possible.
6. Chairs that permit good posture should be provided.

 Design Of Tools And Equipment
1. The hands should be relieved of all work that can be
done more advantageously by a jig, fixture, or foot
operated device.
2. Two or more tools should be combined wherever
possible.
3. Tools and materials should be pre-positioned wherever
possible.
4. Levers, crossbars, and hand wheels should be located
in positions that operator can manipulate them with the
least change in body position and the greatest
mechanical advantage.
Developing Work Methods
1. Eliminate unnecessary motions. (Is this

activity necessary, or can it be eliminated?)
2. Combine activities. (Can this activity be
combined with others?)
3. Reduce fatigue. (Can this activity be
improved?)
4. Improve the arrangement of the workplace.
(Is this the proper sequence of activities?)
5. Improve the design of tools and equipment.
6. Is this the proper person to be doing this
activity?
Method Improvement (example)

Method Improvement (recommendation)

Working Conditions To Be Considered
Temperature & Ventilation

Humidity
Illumination Color
Working Conditions (cont’d)
Noise & Vibration Work Breaks
Safety Causes of Accidents

Work Measurement: Work Study TIME STUDY (Direct Time Study & Activity Sampling) Job Design Principles of Motion Study

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7-1 Design of Work Systems

 Requires a trained & experienced people for analysis

Time Study: The Eight Steps

1. Define the task (job) to be performed.

7. Compute the standard time:

8. Sum the normal times for each element to develop

 Personal time allowance (4 ~ 7%) x total time

Time Allowance (Examples)

Direct Time Study (Example)

Direct Time Study (Example)

4 8 8 6 8 6 7.2 7.92 9.318

Element 1: Average time = (8+9+8+10+8)/5 = 8.6 sec

Direct Time Study (Example)

Labour cost per product :

Labor Cost per product  59.682 sec x 8.33(10)  4 RM / sec

Work Sampling Time Studies

 Standard time is set based on output and

Work Sampling Procedure

1. Take a preliminary sample to obtain an

Work Sampling Equations

(Total Working Time) x (% of working time) x (Rating)

Standard Time = Normal Time

Work Sampling (Example)

Idle IIII 4 4/45 = 9%

Work sampling studies were conducted for 6 consecutive days at a factory.

Compute the standard time.

Work Sampling (Example)

Idle IIII 4 4/45 = 9%

1 0.22 0.26 0.25 0.23

Normal Time  Average Time x Rating  0.24 x 1.08  0.259 min

unit unit min

Over time cost per operator per day

(a) Compute the standard time for each process.

(b) If the company has no problem with the availability of manpower,

= (8 hr/day )x ( 60 min/hr ) / ( 9 min/unit)

2,400min (35  45  5) 1 min

Considerin g only 60% of employees are available for over time,

Job design - determination of specific job:

 How the job will be done ( processing method )

 Where the job will be done ( stand / sit )

 Ergonomics (comfort and safety factor)

Design of Work Systems

Job Design Success

Factors for Successful Job Design:

For Management: For Labor:

1. Simplifies training 1 . Low education and

For Management: For Labor:

1. Difficult to motivate quality 1. Monotonous work

absenteeism, 3. Little opportunity for

Behavioral Approaches to Job Design

 Group of empowered individuals

To maximize effectiveness, managers should

 Moves to specific details

The need for methods analysis can come

Methods Analysis Procedure

1. Identify the operation to be studied

Analyzing the Job

 Flow process chart

Figure 10.5 (c)

Figure 10.5 (a)

Figure 10.5 (b)

Principles Of Motion Economy (Study)