Introduction to Logic

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 TOPIC OUTLINE
What is Philosophy?
 Branches of Philosophy
 What is Logic?
 Procedure of Correct Thinking
Importance of Logic

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 What is Philosophy?
 The ancient definition is the traditional
concept of philosophy which come from two
Greek terms “Philos” meaning “Love” and
“Sophia” meaning “wisdom” or Knowledge.
Therefore, philosophy is ordinarily and
etymologically construed as the love for
wisdom or knowledge. This nominal definition
originated from Phythagoras who thought of
man, among others, as a lover of wisdom.
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 Branches of Philosophy
Ethics: the study of standards of right or
wrong.
 Philosophy of Man: a study of a nature
of man as a person, his origin and
destiny.
Epistemology: the science dealing with
human knowledge, the focus of which is to
know the truth.
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 Branches of Philosophy
Metaphysics: addresses the fundamentals of
existence or reality such as the existence and
nature of God, immortality of soul, etc.
 Aesthetics: a philosophical inquiry of the
beautiful.
Social Philosophy: the study of the socio-
economic-political dimensions of human
beings.
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 Branches of Philosophy
 Theodicy: study a Supreme Being and His
relation to His creatures.
 Political Philosophy: an inquiry into the
ultimate foundation of the state, the ideal
form of government, and its basic powers.
 Logic: the science and art of correct
thinking

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 What is Logic?
 Etymologically, logic comes from the
Greek word “Logos” which means
study, or “Logia” argument, or
“Logike” act of reasoning.
 Generally, Logic is understood as the

science and art of correct thinking

(Cruz, 1995).
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 What is Logic?
Logic is a science because it is certain
and systematized knowledge of the
principles governing correct thinking.
Logic, as a investigates, demonstrates or
explains the laws of correct thinking.

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 What is Logic?
Art can be viewed as mastery of a
certain skill or talent. through which
people express themselves in dance,
music, song, painting, sculpture,
pottery, argument, debate, etc.
Logic, therefore, is an art because it
harness the skill teaches how to make a
good argument.
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 Procedure of Correct Thinking:
1. The major premise of a syllogism makes a
general statement that the writer believes
to be true.
2. The minor premise presents a specific
example of the belief that is stated in the
major premise.
3. If the reasoning is sound, the conclusion
should follow from the two premises. . . .
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Examples of Correct Thinking/Reasoning:

Major premise: All dogs are animals;

Minor premise: Kabang is a dog;
Conclusion: Therefore, Kabang is an animal
 All unmarried men are bachelors

 John is an unmarried man

 Therefore, John is a bachelor

 The above examples are all correct because it

follows the right order and conforms the valid
inference and consistency.
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A ruler is 12-inch long;
Pres. GMA is a ruler;
Therefore, Pres. GMA is 12-inch long.

It is “incorrect” because it doesn’t conform to a

pattern or to rules

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 Importance of Logic
 The art and science of creative thinking
is helpful in the practice of any
profession, and in analyzing or making
decisions in one’s daily life.
 Logic builds confidence in oneself, and
provides man a sense of direction,
order, validity, truth, and accuracy.
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 Importance of Logic
 Knowledge of logic helps in preventing the
commission of errors.
 It helps us avoid making conclusion, based
on false and biased assumption.
 Knowledge of logic is best tested in
argumentation and debate when and where
discussion for or against any issues is
involved.
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 Simple Apprehension

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 Topic Outline
 The Trilogy of Mental Operation
a. Simple Apprehension
b Judgment
c. Reasoning
 The Nature and Process of Simple
Apprehension
 Illustrative Outline of the Formation of
an Idea and of a Term
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 Nature and Process of Simple
Apprehension
 Simple Apprehension: is the first of the
trilogy of mental operations. It consists of
grasping the meaning of an idea or concept.
But before this idea is understood, a process
of abstraction takes place. This process
begins when the intellect ignores or extracts
the particular things. This is called
Ideogenesis.
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 Nature and Process of Simple
Apprehension

Lets begin with reality: reality is

understood as “the sum total of all
existing individual beings, whether
material or spiritual. It consists of
real thing, of actual facts, of
material objects.
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 Nature and Process of Simple
Apprehension

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 Nature and Process of Simple
Apprehension
 As illustrated, there is one existing
person (a man), one oak tree, one
carabao and one car, all constituting a
reality.
 To clearly understand the process, let
us first consider faculty.

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 Nature and Process of Simple
Apprehension
 This faculty refers to instinctive and
knowing powers of the human person. It
starts with the senses: sight, smell, taste,
hearing and touch.
 When these powers to see, smell, taste, hear
and touch are aroused or stimulated, the
process of sensation is at work and the
product of which is a sense image or a direct
representative of reality in the senses.
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 Nature and Process of Simple
Apprehension
 This same sense image becomes the input to
imagination. This imagination will
eventually form into Phantasm—the output
or product of imagination.

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 Nature and Process of Simple
Apprehension
 Phantasm is a new picture in the “inner
eye”. It is an indirect and imaginative
representation of reality. This imaginative
new picture reaches the intellect.
 The human intellect through the process of
abstraction now discards, ignores, or
eliminates, or excludes the physical
characteristics or accidental features.
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 Nature and Process of Simple
Apprehension
 The mind mirror reads the essence,
grasping, or apprehending the nature of
the things. This mind’s apprehension of
essence is called the idea.
 This idea may be expressed orally or in
writing.

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 Illustrative Example 1
 Faculty: Sense of Smell. I smell something
odorous.
 Sensation: The odor arouses my sensation or
instinct to smell. I sense that the odor is
sensation that pleases my sense of smell.
 Sense Image: I sense now an image of a
pleasant object with its distinct odor.

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 Illustrative Example
 Imagination: I imagine this pleasant or
sweet smelling object.
 Phantasm: The result of the imagination is a
sense knowledge of a definite odorous object
which is pleasant to smell.
 Abstraction: The mind mirror or sees the
essence of that odorous object by discarding,
removing, disregarding the physical
characteristics or accidental features.
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 Illustrative Example
My intellect now understands or apprehends
the representation of that essence.
 Idea: The mental representation is an idea,
my idea of PERFUME.
 Term: I express this idea orally or in writing
and say PERFUME. I write PERFUME.
 Predicability. The term “PERFUME” can be
predicted or related to other terms
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 Illustrative Example
 like Baby Cologne, Musk, Polo Sport
and many more. Thus, musk is a
perfume.

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 Illustrative Example 2
 Faculty: Sense of Sight. I see young people
in school uniform.
 Sensation: The sight arouses my sensation
or power to see.
 I now see an image of young people in
uniform of different colors and styles.
 Imagination: I make vivid pictures of those

young people in my imagination.

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 Illustrative Example
 Phantasm: The product of my
imagination is a sense knowledge of
particular persons in school uniform.
 Abstraction: My intellect disregards and
draws/extracts from the physical features of
those young people in school uniform. It now
apprehends/understands the essence
underlying such sense knowledge.
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 Illustrative Example
 Idea: The mental representation isan
idea, my idea of STUDENTS
 Term: I express this idea orally or in
writing. So, I say or write
“STUDENTS”
 Predicability: The term “STUDENTS” can be
predicted or related to other terms such as Jose and
Pedro.
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 Illustrative Example
Thus Jose and Pedro are students, the
predicate idea joined by the copula
“are” if they are still in the mind. They
become subject term and predicate term
when they are expressed into
proposition. Thus, Jose and Pedro are
subject term, while students, predicate
term.
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 The End

Thank you so much!

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 LANGUAGE/WORD AND IDEA
 What is Language?
It may be defined as a set of symbols by which things,
ideas, and thoughts or feelings are communicated to others
(Timbreza, 1999). A language is characterized by four
elements.
1. Symbols ( a word, name, phrase used to signify something);
2. Referent ( that which is symbolized or denoted);
3. Reference ( the meaning or signification existing between
the symbol and the referent): and
4. Subject (the individual who uses the symbol).

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 Illustrative Example:
 The word “FLOWER” as symbol; specific, concrete flower
like “ROSE” as referent; “Love, Admiration and Respect”
as reference; “Suitor, Student, or Teacher” as subject.

 Cross = Symbol
 Catholic Church = Referent

 Holy Place = Reference

 Cardinals, Bishop, Priests and Church goers = Subjects

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 What is an Idea?
 An idea is an intellectual image of a thing or
the intellectual apprehension of a thing. The
idea has two important logical properties;
namely: Comprehension and Extension.
 Comprehension is the set of thought
elements or conceptual features contained in
an idea, while extension is the range or scope
of individuals or classes to which an idea
may be applied.
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 Classification of Terms
 According to Comprehension
1. Concrete = concrete idea expresses a subject that is qualified by
concept.
Example: intelligent student, beautiful dress
Student and Dress are concrete subjects referred to by the mind.
They are qualified by intelligent and beautiful, respectively,
specifying the kind of subject thought of.
2. Abstract = abstract idea expresses a nature or a formal feature
without a subject.
Example: Holiness, Justice and Hospitality.
The given examples are ideas thought of apart from any particular
or concrete things.
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 Classification of Terms
 3. Relative = relative idea expresses a thing ,nature, or formal feature
bearing a relation to something else or expressing explicitly a
relation.
Example: Creature, Husband, Student and Employee
Creature in relation to creator, husband to a wife, student to a teacher,
or employee to an employer.
4. Complete = complete idea expresses all the conceptual reasons or
features that correspond to the comprehension or to the nature of an
object.
Example: Man, Car
The concept of man and car is one and complete. We cannot think of a
human person existing only as rational being or a car functioning
separately its respective part.
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 Classification of Terms
 5. Incomplete = incomplete idea expresses only some of the
conceptual reasons or features that correspond to the
comprehension or to the nature of the object.
Example: Man is a rational being, a car is a vehicle
Man is not only rational but also sentient being, or a car is not
simply described as a vehicle but must be qualified as a wheeled
railroad automobile.
 According to Extension

1. Singular = that which expresses a concept or a set of conceptual

features, that is applicable only to one individual.
Example: The President of the Philippines, The Roman Catholic
Pope, The Prophet of Islam
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Classification of Terms
 2. Universal = it represents not only a class as a whole but
also each member of the class.
Example: Girl, Student, Animal, Laptop
3. Particular = It represents only a part of the universe
whether it is definite or indefinite.
Example: Most Students, Some Teachers, Many Pages
4. Collective = It expresses a group of individuals as a set, not
as individual.
Example: Family, Army, Nation, Choir, Team

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 Classification of Terms
 According to Origin
1. Immediate = immediate ideas is formed from the direct
investigation or observation of a thing.
Example: Water is Liquid, Ice is Solid
2. Mediate = mediate idea is formed from the intermediary
of empirical facts or matters of faith.
Example: Man derives from Ape, Man’s soul is immortal.
The evolution theory has to be supported by empirical study
before the idea may be accepted. The idea of immortality
has to be supported by scriptures and doctrines.

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 Classification of Terms
According to Origin
3. Explicit = explicit idea is that which is expressed
Example: “I love you” (expressed in words)
4. Implicit = implicit idea is that which is implied.
Example: A kiss, a hug or embrace implies love or respect
or an acceptance of one’s love.
5. Ideal = ideal concept is that which the mind envisions.
Example: Heaven on Earth, Classless Society, Crimeless.
6. Subjective = subjective is that which originates from the
personal thinking or judgment of man.
Example: Man is Ape, Murder is a Crime
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 Proposition
 A proposition is defined as declarative sentence which
expresses a relation of affirmation or denial between two
terms (Gualdo, 2000). It is a statement in which something
is either affirmed or denied (Timbreza, 1999).
 From the foregoing definitions, it follows that the quality of
proposition may be either affirmative or negative. A
proposition is affirmative when one term (called the
predicate term) is affirm of another term (called the subject
term)
Example: Philosophy students are studious.
Students – subject term
McGraw-Hill Studious – predicate term
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 Proposition
A proposition is negative when the subject term is denied or
negated by the predicate term.
Example: Philosophy students are not studious.

A proposition is similar if not synonymous to statement. All

statements or propositions are sentences, but not all sentences
are propositions such as exclamatoty, exhortatory, and
interrogatory sentences.
Example: Good luck!
Stop, look, and listen
Why are you here?
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 Proposition

Note:
1. Proposition is expressed in the present tense, indicative
mode.
2. Elements of a proposition are:
a. Matter = subject and predicate
b. Form = copula (is are)

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 Propositions are classified into three general
types, namely:
 1. Categorical propositions which declare
something;
 2. Hypothetical propositions which express
conditions; and
 3. Modal propositions which express the nature of
relationship between the subject term and the
predicate term (Timbreza, 1999).
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 WHAT IS A CATEGORICAL
PROPOSITION?
 A categorical proposition is one which gives a direct
assertion of agreement or disagreement between the subject
term and predicate term. It is a simple proposition with only
one subject and one predicate which express an
unconditional affirmation or negation and is either true or
false in itself.
 Example: All women are beautiful

No man is an island
Some plants are not green
Philosophers are thinkers.

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 The Three Elements/Components of
Categorical Propositions
 1. Subject Term (S)— the term designating the idea
(thing) about which something is affirmed or negated.
 2. Predicate (P)--- the term designating the idea (thing
or attribute) which affirmed or negated of the subject.
 Copula (C)--- is/am/are, is/am/are not always express
the act of the intellect and is respected by the verb to
be.
 Examples: She is my mother She is not my mother
I am her son I am not her son
Some men are married Some men are not married
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 The Three Elements/Components of
Categorical Propositions
In the affirmative proposition, the copula (is,
am & are) joins, unites or “copulates” the
predicate with the subject; the subject is
declared to exist as something identical with
the predicate.
 In the negative proposition, the copula (is
not, am not & are not) separates, or divides
the predicate from the subject.
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Properties of Categorical Proposition
 1. Types of Categorical Proposition According to Quantity
 Singular—one whose subject term applies to single
individual only. (E.g. Sharon Cuneta is a Megastar).
 Particular---if its subject applies to an indefinite number of
referents/individuals/subjects (E.g. Almost all my students
in Logic are intelligent, Some students are diligent, other
students are lazy).
 Universal---if its subject term applies distributively to each
and all of its referent; or simply, one whose subject term
stands for each and all individuals to which it is applied.
(E.g. All men are creatures of God, No man is perfect).
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Properties of Categorical Proposition
 Collective---if its subject term applies to a collective or
group of individuals taken as a unit. (E.g. Filipino family is
religious, The crowd is restless).
11. Types of Categorical Proposition According to Quality
 Affirmative---if there is an agreement between the subject
term and the predicate term, or when the subject and
predicate term are united by the capula and their relationship
is affirmed. (E.g. All students are diligent, Filipino farmers
are hardworking, Filipinos are resilient).
 Negative--- if there is disagreement between the subject
term and the predicate term. The latter is denied of the
former.
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Properties of Categorical Proposition
 The negation is expressed by the copula ‘is not” “are not”
“am not” or no. (E.g. Man is not brute, I am not noisy, No
person is perfect.)

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 Symbols
 Quantity and Quality may be combined to form the four
standards of categorical propositions, namely:
 1. Universal-Affirmative (A)

 2. Universal-Negative (E)

 3 Particular-Affirmative (I)

 4. Particular-Negative (O)

The “A” propositions are indicated by words like all, every,

each, everyone, everything, everybody, which are called
quantifiers. (E.g. All men are mortal, Every teacher is an
employee. (Note general statements and singular
propositions are considered “A” propositions).
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 Symbols
(Note general statements and singular propositions are
considered “A” propositions).
Examples: Honesty is the best policy, Johnny is single.

The “E” propositions are indicated by words like not, no, no

one, nobody, nothing. (E.g. No man is an island, Nothing is
impossible, Nobody is perfect, Marriage is not a joke).
(Note: general statements and singular propositions whose
copula is negative are “E” propositions. (E.g. That today is
Sunday is not true, Peter is not married, Love is not blind.

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 Symbols
The “I” propositions are indicated by words such as some,
someone, something, somebody, several, a few with an
affirmative copula. (E.g. Some students are attentive).
The “O” propositions are indicated by words like some,
somebody, someone, something with a negative copula.
(E.g. Some students are not serious in their studies).

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 Symbols
Q U A L I T Y

Q
U
A
N
T Affirmative Negative
I
T
Y

UnIversal A E

PartIcular I O

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 LOGICAL OPPOSITION
 Logical opposition of propositions is the relation of
truth and falsity existing between propositions with
the same subject and predicate but with different
quantity or quality or both quantity and quality
(Reyes, 1988).
 This is the disagreement or difference as to
quantity, or quality, or both, of two propositions
having the same subject and the same predicate
(Pinon, 1994)

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 LOGICAL OPPOSITION
The foregoing definitions are
better understood by the
illustration of the traditional
square of opposition given.

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 SQUARE OF OPPOSITION
A Universal E
Contraries
A S S
F U U N
F B B E
I
G
R
A A A
M
L L T
A
T T I
T
E E V
I
E
V R R
E N N

I Sub- Contraries O
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 LOGICAL OPPOSITION

As you will notice in the illustrated

form of square, there are four kinds of
logical oppositions, they are as follows:
1. contradictory 3. sub-contrary
2. contrary 4. sub-altern

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CONTRADICTORY OPPOSITION
 Contradictory opposition is one, which exists
between two propositions that differ in both
quality and quantity.
 Rules:

 If one of the pair of opposition is true, the

other is false.
 If one proposition is false, the other is true.

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CONTRADICTORY OPPOSITION

 Examples:

Every dog is an animal. UA T

Some dogs are not animals. PN F
No dog is an animal. UN F
Some dogs are animals. PA T

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 CONTRARY OPPOSITION
 Contrary opposition is one which exists between
two universal propositions that differ in quatity.
 Rules:

 If one of the opposed propositions is true, the other

is false.
 If one of them is false, the other is doubtful. The
propositions can be both false at the same time, but
can never be true at the same time (doubtful).

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 CONTRARY OPPOSITION

 Examples:

All Muslims are Filipinos. UA = F

No Muslims are Filipinos. UN = D
All Filipinos are Muslims. UA = F
No Filipinos are Muslims. UN = D

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 SUB-CONTRARY OPPOSITION
Sub-contrary oppositions is one which exists between
two particular propositions that differ in quality.
 Rules:

 If one of the opposed propositions is false, the other

is true.
 If one of them is true, the other is doubtful. The
propositions can be both false at the same time, but
can never be true at the same time (doubtful)

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 SUB-CONTRARY OPPOSITION

Examples:
Some students are absent. PA = T
Some students are not absent. PN = F
Some students are not absent PN = T
Some students are absent. PA = D

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 SUB-ALTERN OPPOSITION
 Sub-Altern opposition is one which exists
between two propositions that differ in
quantity.
 Rules:

1. If the universal proposition is true, the

particular one is also true. But if the
universal is false, the particular is doubtful.

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 SUB-ALTERN OPPOSITION

Examples:
All persons are human. UA = T
Some persons are human. PA = T
No person is human. UN = F
Some persons are not human.PN = D

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 SUB-ALTERN OPPOSITION
2. If the particular proposition is true, the
universal one is doubtful. But if the
particular is false, the universal is false.
 Examples:

Some plants are flowers. PA = T

All plants are flowers. UA = D
Some roses are not flowers. PN = F
All roses are not flowers. UN = F
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 HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITION

What Is a Hypothetical Proposition?

It expresses a relation of dependence such as an opposition or
likeness between two clauses (Timbreza, 1999).
 There are three (3) classifications of hypothetical
propositions, namely:
1. the conditional,
2. the disjunctive, and
3. the conjunctive propositions


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 HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITION
1. The Conditional Propositions
 Conditional proposition is one which states that the truth of
an affirmative or denial is acceptable to the mind on
condition that the truth of another affirmation or denial is
confirmed or verified (Alviar et al., 1995).
 It is one, which expresses a relation of dependence between
two propositions. The expressed relation point out that one
proposition necessarily follows the other because of a
definite condition (Timbreza, 1999).

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 HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITION

 Note: The propositions containing a hypothetical

propositions are joined by if-then, unless, when, where,
suppose or in case.
An if-then proposition has two parts or components,
namely:
 antecedent or implicans, and
 consequent or implicate.

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 HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITION
 The antecedent (implicans) contains the condition, while the
consequent (implicate) expresses the statement that follows
the acceptance of the condition.
Examples:
 If my students are studious, then they will easily pass logic.

 If school education is quality, then its graduates are

professionally competent.
 If man commits mistakes, then he is not perfect.

 Note: The truth of the latter necessarily follows from the

truth of the former. The truth depends on the relation
between the two propositions and not on the statements
taken individually or separately.
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 HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITION
 11. The Disjunctive Proposition
 Disjunctive proposition is one whose subject or predicate
consists of parts which exclude each other. It contains an
“either or” statement indicating that the implied judgements
cannot be true all together or false all together. The parts of
a disjunction are called disjuncts or altenants.
 Example:

 My students are either awake or sleepy in class.

 That person is either a woman or a man.

 Either you or I am rich.

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 HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITION
 111. Conjunctive Proposition
 Conjunctive proposition is one which denies that two (2)
contrary predicates together can be true of the same subject
at the same time. It denies the simultaneous probability of
two alternatives. The component parts of a conjunctive
proposition are called conjuncts.
Examples:
 A student cannot talk and listen to his professor at the same
time.
 Teachers cannot be in BU main campus and in annex 3 at
the same time.
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 HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITION
.
 Note: Conjunctive propositions may be reduced to two
connective hypothetical propositions or a combination of
hypothetical and categorical propositions.
Example:
 If teachers are in BU main campus, then they are not in
annex 3.

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 CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM
Topic Outline
 Categorical Syllogism—Defined

 Elements of Categorical Syllogism

1. Terms
2. Proposition
3. Consequence

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 CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM
A CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM
 is the most important elementary type of syllogism.
It consists of three categorical, or attributive
propositions which are logically joined together so
that the subject (S) and the predicate (P) of the
conclusion are united or separated through the
intermediarcy of a middle term.
 Elements of Categorical Syllogism

 The first element of a categorical syllogism is the

term. There are three terms:
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 CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM
1. Major Term
is the predicate of the conclusion. The major term
must occur in the conclusion and in one of the
premises, generally the first. The major term is
usually designated by “P”. It stands for the more
universal class.
2. Minor Term
is the subject of the conclusion. The minor term
must appear in the conclusion and in one of the
premises, generally the second premise, in which
the major term does not appear.
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 CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM
It is represented by “S”. It stands for the less
universal class.
3. Middle Term
is the term that occurs in both premises but never in
the conclusion. It serves as the medium of
comparison between the major term and the minor
term. As a connector of one premise to the other, it
is symbolized by “M”.

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 CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM
The second element of a categorical syllogism is the
proposition. There are three propositions:
1. Major Premise
is the proposition containing the major term, generally, the
first premise.
2. Minor Premise
is the proposition containing the minor term, generally, the
second premise.
3. Conclusion
is the proposition containing both the major and the minor
terms.
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 CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM
The third element of a categorical syllogism is the
consequence. This formal element is the form of
syllogism wherein there is mutual dependence of
the proposition on each other. The conclusion is
dependent on premises. This is expressed externally
by the words “therefore”
Example:
Every compassionate person is spiritually healthy;
Mr. Juan Dela Cruz is a compassionate person;
Threfore, Mr. Juan Dela Cruz is spiritually healthy.
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 CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM
Major Term (P) = spiritually healthy
Minor Term (S) = Mr. Juan Dela Cruz
Middle Term (M) = compassionate person

Major Premise = Every compassionate person is

spiritually healthy;
Minor Premise = Juan Dela Cruz is a compassionate
person;
Therefore, Juan Dela Cruz is spiritually healthy.
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 The Basic Rules of Syllogism
 Note: The rules of the categorical syllogism are divided into
two, they are:
 The Rules Governing the Terms and The Rules Governing
the Proposition
 The Rules Governing the Terms

1. The middle term must be taken in the same sense

2. The major term and the minor term cannot have a greater
extension in the conclusion than in the premise.
3. The middle term should not occur in the conclusion.
4. The middle term must be distributed universally, at least
once, in the premises.
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 The Basic Rules of Syllogism
 1. The middle term must always be taken in the same sense.
1. Eyes are organs of sight;
But pineapples have eyes;
So, pineapples have organs of sight.
2. The watch has hands;
But hands have fingers;
So, the watch has fingers.
Thus, the above example is called “Fallacy of Equivocation’
because the middle terms are used totally with different
meanings.
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 The Basic Rules of Syllogism
 Likewise, analogous terms are also prohibited. This a kind
of syllogism which uses terms that are not exactly the same
sense (totally different sense).
 Example:

 A man needs to eat;

But, heroes painted by artists are men;
It follows that, heroes painted by artists needs to eat.
Thus, the above given example is called “Fallacy of
Amphiboly” because the terms used are totally with
different sense/meaning.
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 The Basic Rules of Syllogism
 2. The Major Term and the Minor Term Cannot Have a
Greater Extension in the Conclusion than in the Premise.
 Note: There is an illicit process of the major term if the
major term is particular in the premise but universal in the
conclusion; and illicit process of the minor term, if the
minor term is particular in the premise but universal in the
conclusion.
 Example:

 All hammers are tools;( affirmative)

 But, no nails are hammer;

Therefore, no nails are tools. (negative)

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 The Basic Rules of Syllogism
The major term “Tools” in the major premise being the predicate
of an affirmative proposition is particular in extension. Since
the conclusion is negative, the extension, therefore, of “Tools”
is universal. Hence, the Fallacy of Illicit Major Term.

Syllogism Below commit “Fallacy of Illicit Minor”

Example:
Some scholarly books are influential; Pp Mp
But all influential materials are scholarly written; Mu Sp
Thus, all scholarly written materials are scholarly books Su PP

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 The Basic Rules of Syllogism
3. The Middle Term Must not be Found in the Conclusion.
If the conclusion contains the middle term, then it will just be
a repetition of the premises and not a true conclusion.
Example: Every maya is bird;
But some birds are eagle;
So, some birds are maya and eagle.
Therefore, the above example, is called “Fallacy of Misplace
Middle Term because it just repeated and lead to a wrong
conclusion.

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 The Basic Rules of Syllogism
4. The Middle Term Must Be Distributed Universally at
Least Once.

Example:
A dog is an animal;
but cat is an animal;
therefore, a cat is a dog.
Violation to this rule is called “Fallacy of Undistributed
Middle Term”

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 RULES AND
FALLACIES

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 CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM:

A categorical syllogism is a formal deductive

argument consisting of three statements

TERMS:

MIDDLE TERM:
It is a term that occurs in both premises and
does not occur in conclusion.

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 THREE TERMS

MAJOR TERM:
Major term is the predicate of the conclusion.

MINOR TERM:
:
Minor term is the subject of the conclusion.

EXAMPLE:

No homework is fun ……… major premise

Some reading is homework……… minor premise
Some reading is not fun………. Conclusion

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 DISTRIBUTION OF TERMS:
A categorical term is said to distributed if all individual
members of that category are accounted.

There are four categorical propositions that distribute

there terms. A, E I,O are the standard names for type of
statement indicated

STATEMENT TYPE TERM DISTRIBUTED

A: All X are Y subject

E: No X are Y subject, predicate
I: some X are Y none
O: some X are not Y predicate
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 RULES AND FALLACIES:

Valid syllogism conforms to certain rules

which if violated, a specific “Formal Fallacy “
is committed and the syllogism becomes
invalid

RULES:
There are six rules for standard form
syllogisms which are presented follows:

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 RULE NO: 1
RULE:
A valid standard-form categorical syllogism
must contain exactly three terms, each of
which is used in the same sense throughout
the argument.

FALLACY:
FALLACY OF FOUR TERMS

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 EXAMPLE:
1. All rare things are expensive things.
All great novels are rare things.
Therefore ,all great novels are expensive things.

This syllogism appears to have only three terms but

there are really four terms, since one of them, the
middle term, is used in different senses in two
premises.
2. All dogs are animals,
All cats are mammals,
So all dogs are mammals.
The four terms are: dogs, animals, cats and
mammals
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 RULE NO :2

RULE:
In a valid standard form categorical
syllogism the middle term must be
distributed at least once.

FALLACY:
Undistributed middle

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 EXAMPLE:
All sharks are fish.
All salmon are fish
All salmon are sharks.

In this syllogism the middle term is “fish”. In

both premises “fish” occurs as the predicate
of an A proposition and therefore it is not
distributed in either premises. Thus
syllogism commits the fallacy of
undistributed middle.

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 RULE NO : 3

RULE:
If a term is distributed in the conclusion,
then it must be distributed in a premise.

FALLACY:
Illicit major ; illicit minor

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 EXAMPLES:
All horses are animals
Some dogs are not horses
Some dogs are not animals

In this example there is fallacy of “illicit major.”

All tigers are mammals

All mammals are animals
All animals are tigers

In this example there is fallacy of “illicit minor.”

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 RULE NO :4

RULE:
In a categorical syllogism, two
negative premises are not allowed

FALLACY:
Exclusive premises

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 EXAMPLE:

No fish are mammals.

Some dogs are not fish.
Some dogs are not mammals.

This syllogism is invalid because it has two

negative premises and because of that it
commit the fallacy of exclusive premises.

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 RULE NO:5

RULE:
A negative premise requires a negative
conclusion, and a negative conclusion
requires a negative premise.

FALLACY:
Drawing an affirmative conclusion from
negative premise or drawing a negative
conclusion from affirmative premises.

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 EXAMPLE:
All crows are birds
Some wolves are not crows
Some wolves are birds

All triangles are three angled polygon

All three angled polygons are three sided polygons
Some three sided polygons are not triangles

Both are invalid because 1st draws an affirmative

conclusion from a negative premise. And 2nd draws
negative conclusion from affirmative premises

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 RULE NO :6

RULE:
If both premises are universal, the
conclusion cannot be particular.

FALLACY:
Existential fallacy.

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 EXAMPLE:
All mammals are animals
All unicorns are mammals
Some unicorns are animals.

This syllogism is invalid because in this

case the conclusion is EXISTENTIAL i-e
Beginning with ‘Some’.

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 THANK YOU

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