Chapter 2

Aims & Hypotheses in Research

Nature of Research …
• Thoughtful, rational process • Sense of purpose in
• Build on a sense of purpose research has to be learnt
• What may contribute to • How to?:
knowledge • Learn how real
• Not to simply create new psychologists go about
info/facts psychology
• But .. Build on, expand, • Learn the way
clarify, & illuminate what is psychologists think
already known about psychology

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Possible Aims of Psychological
Research
 Descriptive @ Exploratory Studies …
• Describe in detail the characteristics & features of things
• Assessing the current state of affairs
• Requires categorizing the observation we made
• May include … case study, survey, naturalistic observations, interviews, &
using psychological tests
e.g., Jean Piaget used observed his own children to develop his stage
theory of cognitive development (case study).
e.g., A developmental psychologist watches children on a playground and
describes what they say to each other while they play (naturalistic
observations).
e.g., The median income in District of Ulu Langat is RM3,500 (survey).
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 Evaluation @ Outcome Studies …
• Test effectiveness of particular feature @ intervention
• Concentrate on consequences of certain activities (not even to test
theoretical propositions @ ideas i.e., do not seek to develop theory)
• Have pure empirical objectives … Ascertaining 'merit or worth
or value' of an intervention and developing 'practical
knowledge to aid the decision making process'
e.g., Evaluating the effectiveness of an online nurse refresher course
(an online methodology used to reach out nurses in less
populated, geographically dispersed areas with limited access to
traditional educational opportunities).
e.g., Evaluating security technologies (as a prevention program) with
5 the percentage of crime that happened at a point of time
 Meta-Analytic Studies …
• Statistically summarizing & analysing results of a number of studies
investigating a particular topic
• To integrate the findings of studies
• Use statistics to integrate inconsistent findings @ consolidate various
findings
e.g., Testing the best medical intervention … a valid decision about
using an intervention, ideally we should not rely on the results
obtained from single studies. This is because results can vary from
one study to another for various reasons, including confounding
factors, and the different study samples used.
e.g., By combining individual studies, and thus using more data, the
precision and accuracy of the estimates in the individual studies
can be improved upon.
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Aims of Research
• Researchers have to account for the research they do by
justifying the key aspects of their work
• Have to specify the aims of their research … twofold:
1. Have coherent understanding of the purposes served by the
research i.e., clarity of the aim of the research
2. Present clearly the research aims so as to justify the
research to others
• Justifying the aims of research will involve:
• Explaining the relevance of the research to what is already
known about the topic
• Cite previous theoretical & empirical advancements
• Reference to a wider social context for research
• Research is often a response to concern of broader
society
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Research Hypotheses
 • Working assumptions @ propositions expressing expectations
linked to the aims of the study
• It describes in concrete (rather than theoretical) terms what you
expect will happen in your study
• Reflect the general problem statement @ the core question of the
study (Should jive in with RO/RQ)
• Should be scientifically testable i.e., a hypothesis must be
verifiable by statistical and analytical means
• To allow a verification or falsification
• Two types of hypothesis:
• Null hypothesis
• Research / Alternative hypothesis (Directional/Non-Directional)
• A study without hypothesis? How many hypothesis in a single
study?
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• Hypothesis should be phrased to indicate the NATURE of r/ship
(either causal @ correlational/non-causal)
• Experimental? Non-Experimental?
• The DIRECTION of the r/ship should also be depicted if possible
• Positive? Negative?

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 The Hypotheses …A Comparison

Null Hypothesis … Alternative Hypothesis …

• Statement of equality H o : 9 = 12 • Statement of inequality H1: 𝑋ത 9  𝑋ത 12
• A statement of two or more things equal • A statement of a relationship between two
& unrelated to each other or more variables
• Refers to the population • Refers to the sample
• Indirectly tested • Directly tested
• Implied hypothesis – not necessarily • Explicit hypothesis – stated in the research
stated in the research report report
The Alternate Hypothesis ……A Comparison
Non-Directional Hypothesis …
• Two tailed
• Predicts that two groups will be
different; but doesn’t say in what
direction
• Assume when manipulate the IV there
will be a change in the DV
• Cannot predict if this change will be
positive or negative.
• Ho: μ1 = μ2 (null hypothesis)
ത ≠ 𝑋2
ത (alternative hypothesis)
• H1: 𝑋1
Directional Hypothesis …
• One tailed.
• Assume when manipulate the IV there will be ONE
SPECIFIC change in the DV.
• Predicts that one group will do better than the other
• If predicts that group 1 will be greater than group 2:
• Ho: μ1 ≤ μ2 (null hypothesis)
• H1: 𝑋ത 1 > 𝑋ത 2 (alternative hypothesis – this is
the experimenter’s prediction)
• If predicts that group 1 is less than group 2 then:
• Ho: μ1 ≥ μ2 (null hypothesis)
ത < 𝑋2
• H1: 𝑋1 ത (alternative hypothesis – this is the
experimenter’s prediction)
The Alternate Hypothesis ……A Comparison

Non-Directional Hypothesis Directional Hypothesis

• There will be a significant • There will be a significant positive
difference between the correlation between the number of
number of cold symptoms stress life events experienced in the last
year and the number of coughs and
experienced in the following colds suffered, whereby the more life
week after exposure to a virus events you have suffered the more
for those participants who coughs and cold you will have had.
have been sleep deprived for • The higher the number of face-book
24 hours compared with those friends, the lower the life satisfaction
who have not been sleep score.
deprived for 24 hours.
 Requirement of a Requirement of a
1-tail test of 2-tail test of
significance significance

The predicted direction

should be based on
strong research trends or There are no circumstances in which
theory it is wrong to use a 2-tailed test of
significance irrespective of what the
The direction is not hypothesis says
based on checking what
trend your data show
before choosing a one-
or two-tailed test
Students rarely if ever are justified in
If the 1-tailed hypothesis using anything else in their research
is not supported (i.e.,
trend is in the wrong
direction) then the
15 hypothesis is rejected