CHAPTER 5: HEALTH HAZARD PROFESSIONAL ETHICS AND

WORKING SAFETY
(ADAPTED FROM MADAM BIC 21103
SEM II 2016/2017
RUMAIZAH- BPC 32503)
OBJECTIVES

At the end Introduction

of the Chemical & Physical Hazard
lecture,
student Accident & Accident investigation
would be
able to : Emergency Response Preparedness
INTRODUCTION TO HEALTH HAZARD
HAZARD AND RISK

HAZARD
Potential of an agent to cause harm to health

RISK
Likelihood of hazard to cause harm to health in the
actual circumstances of exposure

RISK = HAZARD X EXPOSURE

HAZARD

The potential of a physical, biological or

chemical to cause harm or damage to an
individual, properties or environment
 The hazard relates to the intrinsic properties
of the chemical (its physicochemical properties
and health effects) to cause harm and will
always be the same.
RISK

The likelihood of hazard to cause harm under

the actual circumstances of exposure
 Risk is totally dependent on the actual
exposure (Intensity or magnitude x duration x
frequency) to the agent.
HEALTH HAZARDS

This chapter will discussed thoroughly on:

 Chemical Hazard
 Physical Hazard
CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL HAZARDS
CHEMICAL HAZARDS

Chemistry is the study of matter and its interaction.

The matters are identified by their properties as well as their
composition.
There are 2 categories of properties:
Chemical properties
Physical properties
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

Chemical properties
The properties that occur due to a chemical changes
e.g: hydrogen gas burns in oxygen gas to form water.
Factors that affecting a chemical reaction:
Phases (liquid, gas, solid)
Temperature
Pressure
Catalyst
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

The properties that can be measured and observed without

changing of identity of a substance.
e.g: melting point, boiling point, vapor pressure, density,
viscosity
 HISTORY OF MAJOR ACCIDENT IN
MALAYSIA
Year Installation Consequance
1991 Bright Sparklers, Sungai Buloh (fire 22 killed
work factory explosion) 103 injured
1992 Matan Maju, Beranang 2 killed
(Fire work factory explosion) 3 injured

1992 Shell Tiram Kimia, Port Klang 13 killed

(solvent depot fire and explosion)

1997 Shell MDS, Bintulu 12 injured

(Air separation unit explosion)
DEFINITION
Chemicals mean chemical elements, compounds or mixtures thereof,
whether natural or synthetic, but do not include micro-organisms;
Hazardous chemical means any chemical which possess any of the
properties categorized in Schedule 1, or for which relevant information exists
to indicate that the chemical is hazardous;
Substance is a form of matter that has definite composition and distinct
properties.
Substances differ from one another in composition and identified by their
appearance, smell, taste and other properties. e.g: water, ammonia,
oxygen
DEFINITION

Mixture is a combination of two or more substances in which the

substances retain their distinct identities. Mixtures do not have constant
composition.
e.g: soft drinks, milk
Elements is a substance that cannot be separated into simpler
substances by chemical means.
e.g: Hydrogen, sodium, uranium
DEFINITION

 A compound is a substance composed of atoms of two or more elements

chemically united in fixed proportions.
 e.g: a water molecule is a combination of two hydrogen atoms and
one oxygen atom.
CHEMICAL SAFETY

Proper handling of various chemicals (matters) should avoid hazard, since

mishandling of the chemical can give effect to health directly or indirectly
etc.
Factors lead to hazard:
 How chemicals get into the body
 Their physical an chemical properties
 How dangerous chemicals are
 Duration of exposure
EFFECT OF CHEMICALS

Chemicals can harm body systems such as:

immune system protects against foreign invaders -HIV and
pesticides
nervous system –central and peripheral; neurotoxins attack
neurons
Endocrine system regulates by glands and hormones and their
receptors; some chemicals mimic hormone
CHEMICAL HAZARDS CLASS
The hazard classifications are established to group materials based on their characteristics.
There are 9 hazard classes:

 Class 1 – Explosive
 Class 2 – Gases
 Class 3 – Flammable liquids
 Class 4 – Flammable solids
 Class 5 – Oxidizers
 Class 6 – Poison
 Class 7 – Radioactive
 Class 8 – Corrosives
 Class 9 – Miscellaneous (other radioactive materials)
 CLASSIFICATION OF CHEMICALS
Part A: Based on Physicochemical Part B: Based on health effects
properties

•Explosive •Very toxic

•Oxidizing •Toxic
•Extremely flammable •Corrosive
•Highly Flammable •Harmful
•Irritant
EXAMPLE:
PHYSICAL HAZARDS - NOISE
 SOUND VS NOISE

Sound Noise
 Sound is generated when energy  Noise is unwanted sound. A noise
generates high and low pressures areas problem generally consists of three
in air called compressions and inter-related elements- the source, the
rarefactions. receiver and the transmission path.

 Sound typically relates to a sensation  A hearing conservation program must be

that is perceived by the inner ear as implemented when employees are
hearing. exposed to 85 dB or more in an
8-hour day.
NOISE HAZARD

In general, sounds above 85 are harmful, depending

on how long and how often you are exposed to them
and whether you wear hearing protection, such as
earplugs or earmuffs.
Noise in the modern workplace poses two safety- and
health-related problems.
 Noise can distract workers and disrupt
concentration, which can lead to accidents.
 Exposure to noise that exceeds prescribed levels
can result in permanent hearing loss.
NOISIEST MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES

Source: http://www.ilocis.org/documents/chpt47e.htm
PHYSIOLOGICAL PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED
WITH EXCESSIVE NOISE
The fundamental hazard associated with excessive
noise is hearing loss.
Exposure to excessive noise levels for an extended
period can damage the inner ear so that the ability to
hear high frequency sound is diminished or lost
altogether.
Additional exposure can increase the damage until
even lower frequency sounds cannot be heard.
CHARACTERISTIC OF SOUND
 Sound is any pressure change that can be detected by the
ear—typically a change in air pressure.
 It can also be a change in water pressure or any other
pressure-sensitive medium.
 What we think of as sound, the eardrum senses as
fluctuations in atmospheric pressure.
 The eardrum responds to these fluctuations by vibrating.
 The vibrations are carried to the brain in the form of
neural sensations and interpreted as sound.
 Sound can occur in any medium that has both mass and
elasticity (air, water, etc.).
CHARACTERISTIC OF SOUND
 The weakest sound that
can be heard by a healthy
human ear in a quiet setting
is known as the threshold
of hearing (1 dBA).

 The maximum level that

can be perceived without
experiencing pain is the
threshold of pain (140 dBA).
HAZARD LEVELS AND RISKS
 Exposure to excessive noise levels for an extended period
can damage the inner ear.
 Ability to hear high-frequency sound is diminished or lost.
 Additional exposure can increase damage until even
lower frequency sounds cannot be heard.
 Noise can cause communication problems and productivity
problems.
 Noise can also be detrimental to productivity by
interfering with an employee’s ability to think, reason, and
solve problems.
HAZARD LEVELS AND RISKS
Factors hearing loss associated with exposure to excessive
noise:
 Intensity of the noise (sound pressure level).
 Type of noise (wide band, narrow band, or impulse).
 Duration of daily exposure.
 Total duration of exposure (number of years).
 Age of the individual.
 Coexisting hearing disease.
 Nature of environment in which exposure occurs.
 Distance of the individual from the source of the noise.
 Position of the ears relative to the sound waves.
NOISE CONTROL STRATEGIES

 The most desirable noise controls are those that

reduce noise at the source.
 The second priority is to reduce noise along its path.
 The last resort is noise reduction at the receiver
using personal protective devices.
The latter approach should never be substituted
for the two former approaches.
PERSONAL HEARING PROTECTION
DEVICES
 A personal hearing protection device (or “hearing
protector”) is anything that can be worn to reduce the
level of sound entering the ear.
 Earmuffs, ear canal caps & earplugs are the 3 main
types.
PERSONAL HEARING PROTECTION
DEVICES
 Regardless of the kind of ear protection device used,
it is important to remember the four Cs:
 Comfort, convenience.
 Communication (the device should not interfere
with the worker’s ability to communicate).
 Caring (workers must care enough about
protecting their hearing to wear the devices).
ACCIDENT & INCIDENT CAUSATION; AND
ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION
PRINCIPLE OF INCIDENT PREVENTION
1. Incident prevention is good management
2. Management and workers must fully cooperate
3. Top management must lead
4. There must be an OSH policy
5. Must have organisation and resources to
implement the OSH policy
6. Best available information and technology must
be applied
ACCIDENT PYRAMID

http://sci.waikato.ac.nz/physicsstop/2014/06/dismantling-the-
health-and-safety-pyramid.shtml
WHAT IS AN ACCIDENT?
 An accident is:
An unexpected, unplanned event in a sequence of
events
That occurs through a combination of causes
Which result in:
 Physical harm (injury, ill-health or disease) to an
individual,
 Damage to property,
 Any combination of these effects.
WHAT IS AN INCIDENT?

 An incident is:

 An unintended event possibly not causing a loss

OR;

 An event which has the potential to result in

unintended harm or damage
WHY PREVENT ACCIDENTS?
Legal
- To comply with the Act (eg.: OSHA 1994, FMA 1967)
Human Rights
- Prevent injury, illness, pain and suffering
Business
- Control costs
- Conserve resources
TYPES OF ACCIDENTS

 Cause immediate injury or damage to

equipment or property:
A forklift dropping a load
Someone falling off a ladder

 That occur over an extended period:

 Hearing loss
 Illness resulting from exposure to chemicals
THREE BASIC CAUSES OF ACCIDENT
Poor Management Safety Policy &
Decisions
Personal Factors
Environmental Factors
Basic Causes
Unsafe Act Unsafe
Indirect causes Condition

Unplanned Incidence
ACCIDENT
Personal Injury,
Direct Causes Property Damage
LACK OF MANAGEMENT CONTROL
 Management responsible for:
 Selection of workers
 Machinery and equipment
 System of work
 Information and training
 Supervision, etc
 The accident prone worker is a false aapproach
 It is like blaming the victim instead of the perpetrator.
MULTIPLE CAUSES OF ACCIDENT

Cause A
(Poor lighting)

Cause B Accident
(Not look where going) (Trip)

Cause C
(Wood in walkway)
ROOT CAUSES OF INCIDENT -
MANAGEMENT (THE REAL PROBLEM)
Personal Factors
 Lack of knowledge or skill,
improper motivation, physical or
mental conditions
Job Factors
 Physical environment, sub-
standard equipment, abnormal
usage, wear & tear, inadequate
standards, design & maintenance,
purchasing standards
Supervisory Performance
 Inadequate instructions, failure of
SOPs, rules not, enforced,
hazards not corrected, devices
not provided
Management Policy &
Decisions
 Measurable standards, work in
progress measure , work-v-
standards, evaluation, corrective
action
CONTRIBUTING FACTORS TO ACCIDENTS –
IMMEDIATE CAUSES
The unsafe acts and unsafe conditions can be
categorised as follows:
1. Human behaviour
2. Design of equipment and plant
3. Systems & procedures including use of
materials
4. Environmental surroundings
COMMON CAUSES OF ACCIDENTS
 Personal beliefs and feelings:
Individual did not believe the accident would happen
to him or her
Individual was working too fast, showing off, or
being a know-it-all.
Individual ignored the rules out of contempt for
authority and rules in general.
Individual gave in to peer pressure.
Individual had personal problems that clouded
his/her judgment.
COMMON CAUSES OF ACCIDENTS
 Decision to work unsafely.
Some people feel it is in their best interests or to their benefit to
work unsafely, and make a conscious
decision to do so.
 Mismatch or overload.
Individual is in poor physical condition or is fatigued.
Individual has high stress, is mentally unfocused/distracted.
The task required is too complex or difficult, or is boring.
The physical environment is stressful.
The work in question is very demanding—even for
an individual in good physical condition.
The individual has a negative attitude.
COMMON CAUSES OF ACCIDENTS
 Systems failure.
Lack of clear policy, rules/regulations/procedures.
 Rules in place, but not enforced
Poor hiring procedures/insufficient training.
Inadequate monitoring and inspections.
Failure to correct known hazards.
No reward/reinforcement of safe behavior
Inadequate tools and equipment provided.
Production requirements set too high.
Inadequate employee communication.
Poor safety management/insufficient job safety analysis and
insufficient management support for safety.
COMMON CAUSES OF ACCIDENTS
 Traps.
 Defective equipment.
 Failure to provide/maintain/personal protective equipment.
 Failure to train employees.
 Overly complicated/confusing controls.
 Poorly laid out work area.
 Mechanical lifting equipment inadequate for jobs required.
 Uncontrolled hazards that might lead to slips and falls.
 Excessive reaching/bending/stooping/twisting.
 Excessive contact pressure/vibration/force.
 Awkward postures from poor workstation or tool design.
 Temperature extremes; insufficient lighting/ventilation.
COMMON CAUSES OF ACCIDENTS
 Unsafe conditions.
Created by the person injured in the accident.
Created by a fellow employee or a third party.
Created by, or knowingly overlooked by management.
Created by the elements (rain, sun, snow, ice, wind, dark).
COMMON CAUSES OF ACCIDENTS
 Unsafe acts.
Ignoring rules, horseplay/fighting, drugs/alcohol.
Individual uses unauthorized tools or equipment.
Individual chooses an improper work method.
Individual fails to ask for information or other resources
needed to do the job safely.
Individual forgets a rule/regulation/procedure.
Individual does not pay proper attention.
Individual uses improper body mechanics.
THEORIES OF ACCIDENTS CAUSATION

 This section will discuss on two (2) theories of accident

causation:
 Heinrich’s Domino Theory
 Human Factors Theory
HEINRICH’S DOMINO THEORY

 Herbert W. Heinrich concluded in the 1920s:

88% of industrial accidents are caused by unsafe
acts
10% are caused by unsafe conditions
2% are unavoidable
 Heinrich’s study laid the foundation for his Axioms of
Industrial Safety.
HEINRICH’S DOMINO THEORY
5 factors in the sequence of events leading up to an accident:
 Ancestry and social environment - character traits that lead
people to behave in an unsafe manner can be inherited, or acquired
as a result of social environment.
 Fault of person - negative traits, inherited or acquired, are why
people behave in an unsafe manner and why hazardous conditions
exist.
 Unsafe act/mechanical or physical hazard - acts by people, and
mechanical/physical hazards are the direct causes of accidents.
 Accident - typically, injury accidents are caused by falling or being
hit by moving objects.
 Injury - typical injuries resulting from accidents include lacerations
and fractures.
HUMAN FACTORS THEORY OF CAUSATION
HUMAN FACTORS THEORY - OVERLOAD
 Overload - imbalance between a person’s capacity at any
given time & the load that person is carrying in a given state.
 Capacity is a product of natural ability, training,
state of mind, fatigue, stress & physical condition.
 Load consists of tasks for which a person is
responsible;
 Added environmental burdens (noise, distractions)
 Internal factors (personal problems, emotional
stress/worry)
 Situational factors (level of risk, unclear instructions)
HUMAN FACTORS THEORY –
INAPPROPRIATE RESPONSE
 Inappropriate responses in a given situation can lead
to accidents
 Detecting a hazardous condition, and not to
correcting it.
 Removes a machine safeguard from to increase
output.
 Disregarding an established safety procedure.
HUMAN FACTORS THEORY –
INAPPROPRIATE ACTIVITIES
 Human error - can be the result of inappropriate
activities—such as when a person undertakes a task
that he/she doesn’t know how to do
Such inappropriate activities can lead to
accidents/injuries.
ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION

An accident has been defined as

 “any unplanned event that causes injury, illness, property
damage or harmful disruption of work process.”

When an accident occurs, it is important that it be

investigated thoroughly.
 The results of an accident report can help safety &
health professionals pinpoint the cause, and help
prevent future accidents—the primary purpose of
accident investigation.
FOUR BASIC TYPES OF INCIDENTS

1. Minor accidents:
 Paper cuts finger, box of materials dropped

2. Serious accidents (cause injury or damage to

equipment or property):
 Falling off a ladder, hazardous chemical spill,
forklift dropping a load
FOUR BASIC TYPES OF INCIDENTS

3. Long Term
 Hearing loss; illness resulting from exposure to
chemicals; cancer

4. Near misses
WHAT IS AN INCIDENT INVESTIGATION

A management tool by which:

 Work-related injuries, ill health, diseases and

incidents are systematically studied so that their
root causes and contributing factors can be
identified

 The organisation’s Occupational Safety And Health

management system can be continually improved
WHY INVESTIGATE AN INCIDENT

 To prevent repetition of the same work- related

injuries, ill health, diseases and incidents
 Legal Requirement
 Accurate record (for insurance, legal prosecution,
public enquiries)
 Organisation’s own policy and business reasons
PRINCIPLES OF INVESTIGATION
Carried out according to procedure:
 For all incidents
 By competent persons with participation of workers.
Should:
 Be systematic and documented
 Be treated as urgent (to prevent productivity loss and
deterioration of evidence)
 Be objective (fact finding only)
 Find the underlying (root) cause(s)
 Identify failures in OSH management system
 Implement corrective action
PRINCIPLES OF INVESTIGATION
The results should:
 Be communicated to the Safety and Health Committee
who should make appropriate recommendations
 Include external investigation reports such as DOSH and
SOCSO
 Be communicated to appropriate persons for corrective
action
 Included in management review
TYPES OF ACCIDENT INVESTIGATIONS

1. ACCIDENT REPORT
 An accident report is completed when the accident
in question represents only a minor incident.
 It answers: Who, What, Where, and When—not
Why.
TYPES OF ACCIDENT INVESTIGATIONS
2. ACCIDENT ANALYSIS REPORT
An accident-analysis report is completed when the
accident in question is serious—and should answer Why.
 Analysis must identify the root cause or the company
will treat only symptoms, or worse, solve the wrong
problem.
 Serious accidents are always accompanied by the
potential for litigation
TYPES OF ACCIDENT INVESTIGATIONS
 Accident-analysis reports are called for when any
of the following circumstances result from the accident:
 Death; Loss of consciousness; Professional medical
treatment beyond first aid.
 One or more days of lost work, over & above time
lost beyond the day of the accident.
 Modifications to the injured employee’s work duties,
beyond those that might occur on the day of the
injury.
WHEN TO INVESTIGATE
All accidents, no matter how small, should be investigated, and a
near-miss should be treated like an accident.
 As soon as all emergency procedures have been accomplished,
accident investigation should begin.
 Waiting too long can harm the results :
Scene interference
Deterioration of evidence
Losing people’s recollection of the incidence
 Immediate investigations are more likely to produce accurate
information and an evidence of management’s commitment to
preventing future accidents.
 WHAT TO INVESTIGATE
 The purpose of an accident investigation is to collect facts—
not to find fault.
 Causes of the accident should be the primary focus.

The investigation should be guided by:

 Who, What, When, Where, Why, and How.

 As you investigate, don’t put the emphasis on identifying who

could be blamed for the accident.
 A quality job of investigating is objective & analytical.
WHAT TO INVESTIGATE
Some questions to be asked:
 Exactly what was the injured person doing or trying
to do at the time of the accident?
 Had the worker received proper training?
 Was the injured person authorized to use the equipment
or perform the process involved in the accident?
 Was the task in question being performed according to
properly approved procedures?
 Was the proper equipment being used, including personal
protective equipment?
 Was the employee new, or was the process, equipment,
or system involved new?
 Were any safety/procedures not being followed?
WHO SHOULD INVESTIGATE - DEPENDS
ON SEVERITY OF THE INCIDENT
 Internal Investigation team
Individuals involved
Supervisor, Safety officer
Upper management
external consultants
Members of the Safety and Health Committee
 External agency involvement
DOSH and/or DOE, Police, etc.
CONDUCTING THE INVESTIGATION
Five steps to follow
in conducting an
accident investigation.
GATHERING INFORMATION
Time is of the essence
 Take samples, photos, measurements and sketch diagrams,

 Preserve and protect data, Information and evidence

 Collect in order of fragility

 People, Positions, Parts and Papers; (4Ps)
 Record injury types & groups

 Identify people involved

 Excellent source of first hand knowledge

 Interview injured, witnesses, supervisors and others

GATHERING INFORMATION-INTERVIEW
WHEN:
 Interviews should begin as soon as the witness list has been
compiled and proceed expeditiously.
Recollections will be best right after the accident.
Immediacy avoids the possibility of witnesses comparing
notes and, as a result, changing their stories.

 Witnesses should be interviewed individually and separately,

preferably before they have talked to each other.
GATHERING INFORMATION-INTERVIEW
WHERE:
 The best place is at the accident scene—if not possible, in a
private setting elsewhere.
It is important to ensure distractions are removed,
and interruptions guarded against.
It is also important to select a neutral location in which
witnesses will feel comfortable.

 All persons interviewed should be allowed to relate their

recollections without fear of contradiction or influence by other
witnesses or employees.
GATHERING INFORMATION-INTERVIEW
HOW:
 Put the witness at ease and to listen.
 What is said; How it is said; What is not said.
 Phrase questions in an open-ended format.
 Don’t lead witnesses with your questions or influence
them with gestures, facial expressions, tone of voice,
or any other form of nonverbal communication.
 Interrupt only if absolutely necessary to seek clarification on a
critical point.
 Remain nonjudgmental and objective
GATHERING INFORMATION-INTERVIEW
 If you can keep your note taking to a minimum during the
interview, your chances of getting uninhibited information are
increased.
Note taking can distract and even frighten a witness.

 Listen during the interview, make mental notes of critical

information, summarize you have heard, and have the
witness verify your summary.
After the witness leaves, develop your notes immediately.
GATHERING INFORMATION - POSITION
Document the incident scene before any changes are made:
 Victim location
 Position of each witness on a master chart (including the
direction of view)
 Machinery, energy and chemical sources
 Other contributing factors
Take photos, draw scaled sketches
Record measurements
GATHERING INFORMATION - PARTS
Around incident scene prior to, during or after the incident that
may have influence
 Materials, pieces of plant, tools, equipment, buildings

May require qualified person to examine or comprehensive

testing or sophisticated equipment

Reports by “expert witness" will form part of the investigation

evidence
GATHERING INFORMATION - PAPER
 Production schedules or process diagrams
 Check current working procedure
 Check qualifications
 Check training records
 Check corrective actions
 Check equipment maintenance records
 Check incident records
FINDINGS
Isolate essential contributory factors
“Would the incident have happened if this particular factor
was not present?”
Determine Causes
Employee actions, environmental conditions, equipment
condition, procedures, training
Find Root Causes. Ask:
What caused behaviour?
Why equipment was not fixed?
Why condition was not corrected?
REPORTING ACCIDENTS
 An accident investigation should culminate in a
comprehensive accident report.
 Clear, complete description and accurate information of
events leading up to the accident
 Clear, complete and correct identification of all causal
factors
 Recommendations
 Supporting documentation
 Proper review and sign off