Corrosion

Various forms of Corrosion:-

1. Uniform corrosion
2. Galvanic corrosion
3. Crevice corrosion
4. Pitting corrosion
5. Stress corrosion
6. Fatigue corrosion
7. Erosion corrosion
8. Cavitation corrosion

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 Corrosion

1. Uniform Corrosion
– Most common form of the corrosion, which is characterized by chemical
or electrochemical reaction which proceeds evenly and uniformly over
the entire exposed area
– The corrosive product may either form a protective layer on the metal or
as in the case of direct chemical attack, the corroded material will
dissolve in the corrosive environment
– This type of corrosion can be prevented or reduced by (i) Choice of
proper materials, (ii) Coatings
2. Galvanic Corrosion
– This occurs when two dissimilar metals are placed in contact
– The less resistant metal becomes anodic and the more resistant metal
cathodic

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 Corrosion

3. Crevice corrosion
– This is an intense, localized corrosion, which occurs within crevices on metal
surfaces exposed to corrosives
– Crevice corrosion can be minimized by using welded joints instead of riveted
or bolted joints. Similarly in equipment sharp corners and stagnant areas
should be avoided

4. Pitting Corrosion
– This occurs between surfaces in close contact
– It is extremely localized and occurs due to presence of impurities, rough
spots and scratches
– Adding inhibitors to metals is helpful in reducing pitting

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 Corrosion

5. Stress corrosion
– This corrosion is the result of internal or external stresses and corrosive
environment
6. Fatigue corrosion
– In this type of corrosion, cyclic loads combine with corrosion to cause corrosion
fatigue
7. Erosion corrosion
– Caused due to combination of corrosive fluid and mechanical wear resulting from
impingement of liquid or abrasion of solid particles
– This effect depends mainly on liquid velocity
– All types of equipment exposed to moving fluids are subject to erosion corrosion
– Some of these are piping systems, valves, pumps, blowers, centrifuges, agitators, heat
exchanger tubes, equipment for spraying fluids etc.

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 Corrosion

8. Cavitation
– Occurs due to repeated collapse of vapor bubbles on a metal surface. This
causes mild physical damage to protective films, severe deformation and
fracture of surface
– Occurs in equipment where high velocity liquid flow and pressure changes
are encountered, such as pump impellers, resulting in vapor bubbles

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Cost Information Required

• Flowsheet
• Stream table
– Flows of each component in every stream
– Stream temperatures and pressures
– In some cases
• Enthalpies
• Densities, etc.
• Operating costs can be calculated
– With the known stream flow rates & stream temperatures
– Using material & energy balances
– The utility flows for various units
– Boiler feed water, steam, electricity
– Cooling water for reactors, boilers, compressors and condensers
6 Dr. Pradipta Chattopadhyay | BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Capital Cost

Capital Costs

Fixed Working

Manufacturing Non-Manufacturing Raw material inventory

• Equipment (Reactors,
Compressors
• HE, Pumps, Tanks, etc.)
• Based on Installed cost
• (Delivered cost
+Installation
BITS – Pilani (Rajasthan)
• Directly related to • Goods in process
process but outside • Finished product
but built in separate Inventory
location • Store supplies & all
• And indirect cost: other items
not directly involved
with material and
labour of equipment
installation
Dr. Pradipta Chattopadhyay | BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Profitability Estimate

Gross Profit = Gross Sales per year – Manufacturing cost

Manufacturing cost = Operating costs + Capital costs

Operating costs = Raw materials + Direct expenses + Indirect expenses

(Direct + Indirect) expenses = Utility cost + other operating expenses

Direct expenses = Labor + Supervision + Payroll + Repairs (maintenance) + Utilities

Indirect expenses = Depreciation (on machines, equipment and buildings) + Taxes

& Insurance on property + others

8 Dr. Pradipta Chattopadhyay | BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Net Profit

Net Profit = Gross Profit – (SARE + Income Tax)

•SARE: Acronym for Sales, Administration, Research & Engineering
(@ 10% gross profit)
•Income Tax (@ 50% gross profit)

Return on Investment (ROI)

Net Profit
Return on total F & W Capital  100
Total F & W Capital

9 Dr. Pradipta Chattopadhyay | BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Break-up of Total Capital
Investment & Start-up Cost

10 Dr. Pradipta Chattopadhyay | BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Break-up of Total Capital
Investment & Start-up Cost

11 Dr. Pradipta Chattopadhyay | BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Break-up of Total Capital
Investment & Start-up Cost

12 Dr. Pradipta Chattopadhyay | BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Gross Earning and Total
Product Cost

13 Dr. Pradipta Chattopadhyay | BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Estimation of Costs

• We had seen the types of costs that are included

in an economic analysis

• How to generate these cost data?

• We need to know the following

– Methods for calculating capital and operating costs
– Techniques for putting the capital and operating costs on the same
basis
– Profitability measures
– A simple model for screening process alternatives

14 Dr. Pradipta Chattopadhyay | BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Estimation of Operating Cost

• Simple to estimate
• Once we know the flows of the raw materials
streams and utility flows (fuel, steam, cooling
water, power)
• We simply multiply the flow by the rupee value of
that stream
• One way to keep utility costs uniform is to relate
all utility prices (electricity, various steam levels,
and cooling water costs) to an equivalent fuel
value

15 Dr. Pradipta Chattopadhyay | BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Estimation of Capital Cost

• We use equipment cost correlations

• Capital cost of a Heat Exchanger (HE) = f (HE
Area)
– It is not necessary to specify
• Number of tubes
• Number of baffles
• Baffle spacing
• or any other details of the design
• Cost of furnace = f (heat duty required)
• Cost of Distillation column = f (column height &
diameter)
16 Dr. Pradipta Chattopadhyay | BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Purchased Equipment Cost

• Extensive data is available in ‘Plant design and

economics for chemical engineers’ by Peters and
Timmerhaus
• Other correlations
– Chilton (1949), Chem. Engg. 56 (6), p 67
– Happel and Jordan (1975), Chem. Process Economics
– Guthrie (1969), Chem. Engg. 76 (6), p 114
• Update by Project ASPEN, MIT, USA

17 Dr. Pradipta Chattopadhyay | BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Installed Equipment Costs

• Lang, H.J. (1948), “Simplified approach to

Preliminary Cost Estimates”. Chem. Engg. 55 (6),
p 112.
• For more accurate estimates:
– Hand (1958) used different factors for different kinds of processing
equipment
Installed Equipment cost for
Distillation columns = 4 (Purchased cost)
Heat exchangers = 3.5 (Purchased cost)
Compressors = 2.5 (Purchased cost)
Fired heaters = 2 (Purchased cost)
Miscellaneous equipment = 2.5 (Purchased cost)

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Guthrie’s Correlations

Purchased cost = (Base cost) (Index) (Fc)

Installed cost = (Base cost) (Index) (IF + Fc – 1)

Base cost for carbon steel
IF = installation factor
Index = correction factor for inflation
Fc = correction factor for material of construction

• Data is mostly in the form of graphs

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ASPEN Correlations

• Developed by Project ASPEN at MIT, USA

• These correlations are part of a large
– Computer-aided design programs

ASPEN expression of HX is:

CE = CB FD FMC FP
Where, CE = HX cost in the 1979
CB = base cost for a carbon steel, floating head
exchanger with a 100 psig pressure
between 150-12000 ft2 of surface area
FD = design-type correlation (tube & shell passes)
FMC = material-of-construction correction factor
FP = pressure correction factor
20 Dr. Pradipta Chattopadhyay | BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Contd..

• The expression for base cost (CB):

– ln CB = 8.202 + 0.01506 (ln A) + 0.06811 (ln A)2
Where, A is the area of heat exchanger
• Equations for correction factors FD, FMC, and FP
are available
• Similarly, cost expressions for a variety of other
pieces of equipment are available

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Updation of cost correlations

• Chilton’s correlations were published in 1949

• Guthries’ correlations were published in 1968
• ASPEN correlations are more recent
• However it takes about 3 years to build a chemical
plant and so we must be able to predict future
costs

Base cost in present year  Base cost in certain year i.e. base year 
 cost index for present year 
 
 cost index for base year 
22 Dr. Pradipta Chattopadhyay | BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Cost Models: Total Capital
Investment
Total Capital Investment  Fixed Capital  Working Capital  Start - up

WorkingCap ital  0.15Tot. Inv. 

Start - up  0.1Fixed Cap.

Fixed Capital  Direct Cost  Indirect Cost

DirectCost  Onsite  Offsite

Onsite  Installed Equipment Cost Offsite  0.45(Onsite )

23 Dr. Pradipta Chattopadhyay | BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Cost Models: Total Capital
Investment
Indirect Cost  Owner' s cost  Conting.
Owner' s cost  0.05Onsite  Offsite 
Conting.  0.20Onsite  Offsite 
Fixed Cap.  Onsite  Offsite  Owner' s Cost  Conting.
 1.25Onsite  Offsite 

Tot. Cap. Inv.  Fixed Capital  Working Capital  Start - up

 Fixed Capital  0.15Tot. Cap. Inv.   0.1Fixed Cap.

Tot. Cap. Inv.  2.36Onsite 

24 Dr. Pradipta Chattopadhyay | BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Cost Models: Total Product
Cost

Total Product Cost  1.03Raw Matl.  Util.   2.13Labor 

 0.103Fixed Cap.  0.025Revenue 

Fixed Cap.  1.81Onsite  Labor  105 Operators

For small process, 24hr/day, 7 days/wk

Total Product Cost  1.03Raw Matl.  Util.   0.186Onsite 

 2.13 105 Operators
 0.025Revenue 
25 Dr. Pradipta Chattopadhyay | BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
 Important References

• V. Mahajani & S. Umarji, “Joshi's Process Equipment Design”,

Macmillan Publishers India Ltd., 4th Ed., 2009.

• M.S. Peters & K.D. Timmerhaus, Plant Design and Economics for
Chemical Engineers, McGraw- Hill, 4th Edition, 1991.

• James M. Douglas, Conceptual Design of Chemical Processes,

McGraw-Hill International Edition, 1988.

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