Academic Writing

with Dr L.
Mukaro
Outline
 Background
 Question Interpretation
 The writing process
 Referencing – Harvard System
L. Mukaro (PhD) MBA563 2019

Background
 truth is that academic papers are a specially-designed
torture instrument.
 they are preferred because instructors are not directly
involved in the torture.
 usually students torture themselves by waiting until
the last minute to write their papers and by not
knowing what they are doing.
 test your knowledge, understanding and
appreciation of the subject.

Product of Research
Systematic – research process
Logical – induction/deduction
Empirical – evidence based
Reductive – generalisation
Replicable – methodology.
Academic writing vs others
 Academic writing is a skill that is required in many
contexts throughout life.
 uses different conventions- systematically abide by
them.
 is an art – learnt and perfected by practice

Academic writing vs others…
Personal reflection.
Formality
Coherence
Citing & referencing - Harvard, Chicago and APA
Following good practice conventions

Remember …
 Assignments allows a better understanding of the
subject.
 Opportunity for an in-depth analysis.
 they are a vehicle for demonstrating your
knowledge and understanding to the marker
 displayyour ability to reason and write
academically.

However …
 Assignments are not last minute tasks.
 they require thought and planning.
 allow you to form your own opinions, often guided
and based on the literature.
 they require you to make sure your sentences are as
clear as possible because written language can be
easily misunderstood.

Cottrell, S. (2003) The Study Skills Handbook.
Basingstoke. Palgrave.
Interpreting the question…
 crucial first step to a good assignment is
correctly interpreting the question/task
 it’s easy to go astray even with relatively

simply worded questions, let alone more
complex ones.

Structure of question
 the subject- focus
 a keyword (telling you how to write your
assignment)- instruction words.
 the aspect of the subject matter
 restrictions (eg., a context for the topic) –
range & boundaries.
 there is no strict order

Example
 Describe the three models of communication
(Linear- Shannon & Weaver, 1949; Interactive-
Schramm, 1955; Transactional- Wood, 2009).
Evaluate their suitability for describing business
communication situations.

Assignment 1
Critique Clampitt’s (2001) approaches

to communication in business
organisations.

Instruction words/key words
 Account for (making a case) Give reasons for:
explain why something happens/why it is cp. Justify
 Analyse Examine something in very close detail and
from a number of angles.
 Identify the important points and key features, and
understand their relationships.
 After considering all perspectives, develop a viewpoint
in response to the essay question, and support your
reasoning with evidence as appropriate.

Instruction words…
 Argue Present a case for and against a proposal or
statement and present your own opinion at the end.
 Asses Examine all aspects and make a judgement
as to quality or attributes.
 may involve identifying cause and effect, implications
and impacts, or strengths and weaknesses.
 Compare Show how two or more things are similar.
 Contrast Look at two or more things and draw out
differences.
 state whether the differences are significant.

Instruction words/key words…
 Critically evaluate Weigh arguments for and against
something, assess the strength of evidence on both
sides.
 Critique Treat in a detailed and analytical way.
 will involve some description but most importantly a
judgment as to quality, highlighting strengths or
weaknesses, advantages or disadvantages.

 Define Give the exact meaning of.
 give precise meaning.
 describe and clarify.
 may involve showing different interpretations, or
explaining boundaries or limitations.
 provide example/s if appropriate.

 Describe Give a detailed account of the main features
or characteristics.
 Discuss Write about the most important
characteristics of something.
 give arguments for and against, look at it from a variety
of perspectives.
 after considering all perspectives, develop a viewpoint
in response to the essay question, and support your
reasoning with evidence as appropriate.

 Distinguish Identify the differences between two
items.
 Evaluate Assess the worthiness or usefulness of
something. Use evidence to support your opinion.
 Examine Look at something in detail. You may be
expected to ‘critically evaluate’ it as well.
 Explain Make it clear why something happens or
why it is the way it is.

 Identify Recognise name and briefly describe
something
 Illustrate Use examples to further explain or justify
something. Could be visual or verbal.
 Interpret Explain the meaning or significance of
information or data that you are presenting.
 Justify Provide evidence that supports an
argument or idea.

 Outline Give only the main points, show only the main
structure.
 Prove Present evidence in a logical structure to
support an argument for a point of view.
 Relate: 1. Show how ideas/theories/events etc. are
linked or connected.
2. Tell a story. Explain something in a narrative fashion
 Review Survey and comment on the key aspects of
something or a range of things.
 State Give the main features clearly and simply.

 Summarise Draw out the main points, omitting
detail and examples.
 provide a shortened version in your own words,
highlighting major points and omitting less important
detail.
 To what extent… How far is something true, or
contributes to a final outcome.
 also how far is it not true? In academic writing the
answer is usually somewhere in the middle.

 Trace Describe the development of something;
follow the order of different stages in an event or
process.
 How/Why/What? Specify details, give precise,
accurate information.
 analyse all relevant perspectives, issues.
 answer must show conviction, supported by example/s
if appropriate.

The write up
Introduction
 is where you provide a route map for the reader
and make clear how your argument will develop.
 one effective approach is to outline the main issues
that you seek to address in your essay.

Introduction…
 it may also be appropriate to explain how you
interpret the question.
 Aim for the following in your introduction:
 provide a brief context for the essay question.
 clearly state what the essay is about (without
repeating the essay question).

Introduction…
 common practice to use the future tense in
introductory sections of essays.
 ‘The purpose of this essay will be to explore….’ or
‘This essay will explore…’.
 However, future tense can sound uncertain and
unconfident.
 you can be more assertive by writing in the present
tense, e.g. ‘The purpose of this essay is to explore…’
or ‘This essay explores…’.
Introduction…
 tell the reader why the topic is important and/or
interesting.
 give a clear central argument.
 outline how the essay will develop.
 10% of the essay.

Main body
 it is up to you to decide on the best way to organise
your essay.
 whatever you decide, make sure you adopt a
systematic or logical approach that is transparent
to your readers.
 keep them informed about the steps in your
exposition (the presentation of your viewpoint).

Main Body…
 you are not writing a mystery or thriller, so do not
leave the reader in suspense until the end
 make your argument explicit
 every paragraph in the main body of your essay links to
the ones before and after it.
 if it helps – and if it is appropriate – you could divide
your essay into sections and subsections
 give each section a subheading or summary in a few
words; you can always remove subheadings
afterwards.
Developing an argument
 a good argument (a ‘sound’ argument) is a point of
view that is presented in a clear and logical way.
 each stage of reasoning should be transparent and
convincing
 should include evidence and possible counter-
arguments.
 it may even help to make the assumption that the
reader is in disagreement with you.
 you will not only find arguments of this kind in
academic contexts.

Developing an argument…
 ‘Be emotionally neutral: most academic writing
requires you to stand back and analyse
dispassionately, as an objective onlooker.’
(Cottrell 2003: 157).
 ‘objective’ vs ‘subjective’
 Objectivity is one of the cornerstones of academic
practice.

Main body…
Pay attention to the following:
 the writer’s voice and perspective are clearly
evident, even if the discussion is largely based on
source material.
 structurally, the discussion (body) is based on a
series of paragraphs.
 Each paragraph should develop the central idea,
adding to, and advancing the central argument.

Main body…
 all content should relate to and support the central
argument (if not, question whether it belongs in the
essay or not)
 discussion follows the most logical order for the nature
of the topic (e.g., by importance, chronologically,
stages in a process).
 main ideas stand out from supporting ideas.
 all ideas link cohesively, rather than appear as isolated
units.

Main body…
 the reader is readily able to follow the discussion,
and grasp the relationships and connections the
writer intends.
 all source material is properly referenced.

Conclusion
 the conclusion is where you remind the reader of
what you have done – the main issues you have
addressed and what you have argued.
 should contain no new material.
 your conclusions should be clear, leaving the
reader in no doubt as to what you think;
 you should also explain why your conclusions are
important and significant.

Conclusion…
 just as in your introduction you tell the reader
where your discussion is heading, so in the
conclusion you tell them where you’ve arrived.
 should be concise one or two paragraphs.
 it may also be a good idea to link your final
sentence to the question contained in the title
(Cottrell 2003: 154).

Conclusion
 Gives a clear and unambiguous conclusion to the
essay topic.
 Briefly summaries the major discussion points.
 Gives finality to the discussion, drawing the essay
to a close.
 10% of the essay.

Diagrams/graphs/pictures…
Organizational good practices for
employees.
 Basic needs
 Psychological and
 Self fulfillment
(Maslow’ Hierarchy of needs, 1943)

Reference list and/or bibliography
 appended to your essay
 reference list - should be a list of all the sources
you have referred to
 bibliography - list of all of the sources you have
consulted but not referred to within the essay
 find out which is required by your department and
which referencing system is preferred
 it may be that they require both, either separately
or combined.

Identifying Academic Sources
 the sources of information you can
document in university assignments are
typically those from an authority.
 in an academic setting, an authority is
usually someone who has been the author of
published material.

Identifying Academic Sources…
 This material may come in the form of:
Books
Journal articles
Published reports

Identifying academic sources…
 Information provides evidence, which may
be in the form of –
 theoretical ideas,
 critical evaluations,
 research findings, and
 scholarly opinions
 useful in backing up the points you are
making.
Identifying academic sources…
Academic sources of information, or evidence,
differ from……
 your own opinions.
 conclusions or outcomes of discussions on the
issue with friends or relatives.
 a celebrity’s opinion.
 opinion columns in newspapers (as opposed to
newspaper articles).

Integrating the Ideas of Published Authors
 read widely in order to seek out the different sides
of a debate within a particular field of inquiry.
 university assignments can be considered as
vehicles for exploring the literature and finding
out points of difference, agreement, and
variability amongst different authors
(scholars).

Integrating the ideas of published authors
 demonstrate evidence of your literature
exploration by including these authors in your
writing and mentioning their points of view.
 this technique of referring to authors in your

writing is often termed citing, documenting, or
in-text referencing.

Citing Authors and Referencing
 the purpose of referencing is to enable others to
find the information that you have used in your
assignment.
 you MUST cite and reference all the information
that you would have used in the main text of your
assignment.
 it is important to acknowledge the work of others
if you have referred to it in your assignments;

Citing…
 if you do not, you will be accused of
PLAGIARISM.
 Plagiarism is a failure to acknowledge another
person’s work or idea and claiming this idea as
your own.
 this is deemed as cheating/academic misconduct
and is treated as a SERIOUS OFFENCE.
 Ephorus-Turnitin, plagiadetect, Ithenticate,
Plagiarism Checker X, etc.

REFERENCES
 is a list of sources that you have cited in the main
text of your assignment.
 produced at the end of your assignment.
 ALL sources that have been mentioned in the
main text need to be listed, alphabetically, in the
reference section using the correct format as
outlined in this guide.
 if you have two or more authors with the same
name you list them in alphabetical order
according to the author’s first name.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
 is a list of sources that you have read but have not
cited in the main text of your assignment.
 also produced at the end of your assignment after
the reference section;
 HOWEVER, you only need to produce a
bibliography alongside a reference list if you have
been asked to do so.
 NB: Generation of a Reference/Bibliography
list can be automated (Mendeley, Zotero,
Microsoft Word).

Citing/in-text referencing
Citing/in-text referencing
 each time you use an author's words or ideas in your
writing, you must place a citation in the text.
 this applies to both direct quotations and paraphrases.
 it is important to place the in-text citation directly in,
or immediately after, the sentence or clause which uses
information or ideas from a source.
 it is not adequate to put the in-text citation at the end
of the paragraph because this indicates that only the
information in the last sentence belongs to the source.

Citing/in-text referencing…
 Harvard uses the ‘author-date’ style of referencing.
 in-text references (generally) appear in the following
format:
 Author’s Last Name Year of Publication, Page
Number(s).
 Example: Austen (1813: 64)….

Author prominent style-
 include the author’s name in a sentence, omitting it
from the brackets.
Austen (1813: 64-67) observes that…
 can also be placed in different positions in the
sentence.
 i. According to Mukaro (2001: 6), Textile, Clothing &
Footwear (TCF) manufacturers have suffered a
significant loss of domestic market share since 1993.
 ii. Textile, Clothing & Footwear (TCF) manufacturers,
according to Mukaro (2001: 6), have suffered a
significant loss of domestic market share since 1993.
Information prominent style-
 the author’s name is in parentheses.
The conclusion reached in a recent study

(Cochrane, 2007) was that…
Textile, Clothing & Footwear (TCF) manufacturers

have suffered a significant loss of domestic market
share since 1993 (Mukaro, 2001: 6).

Citing…
 it is often useful to vary the citation styles,
e.g., as part of a sentence or at the end of a
sentence.
 varying citation styles may allow for better
linking between sentences and between
ideas.
 it also allows for different emphasis – either
on the topic or the author.
Citing…
 if you are referring to an entire work, include only
the author’s last name and year of publication in
brackets.
According to Mukaro (2011), ….
 if you are referring to part of a work, you must

include page numbers.
According to Mukaro (2011: 28), ….

Citing…
 when citing a source you have not read yourself, but
which is referred to in a source you have read, use the
following method:
Moore (as cited in Maxwell, 1999: 25) stated that…
 Important: You would cite Maxwell, not Moore, in the

Reference List
 Please Note: It is always preferable to cite the original
source.

Citing Book with one author
Author Last name (year)
According to McDonagh (2001) …
(Author Last name, year)

As has been argued (McDonagh, 2001) …

Book with two authors
First author Last name and second author Last
name (year)
Shalloway and Trott (2001) suggest that…..
(First author Last name and second author Last

name, year)
It has been suggested (Shalloway and Trott, 2001)….

Citing…
 If there are two or more authors with the same
surname, regardless of year of publication, include
their first initials to distinguish the publications.
According to R. B. Holmes (1995) and J. S. Holmes

(1995), management principles underlie many
organizational practices.
Management principles underlie many organisational

practices (R. B. Holmes, 1995; J. S. Holmes, 1995).
Citing…
 if there are two or more publications written by the
same author in the same year, then add the letter “a”
immediately after the year of the first publication
mentioned in the text, and add the letter “b” after the
second, and so on.
 ensure the same detail is reflected in your Reference
List.
 Example;
 McMillan (1992a) illustrates cross-cultural awareness
in organisations.
 McMillan (1992b) argues for a relook of gender in
cross-cultural awareness.

 For works with no identifiable date, include n.d. in
brackets.
The notion of anger has been debated for centuries

(Wilkinson, n.d.).

Book with more than three authors
First author Last name et al. (year)
McGeady et al. (2006) suggest….
(First author Last name et al. year)

It has been suggested (McGeady et al., 2006) ….
NB: All authors should be named in the first appearance.

Citing…
 Chapter in an edited book
 Same as with authors of books, it will differ in the
references.
 Journal Articles (inc E-journals)
 It is the same with authors of books, will differ in the
references.
 Newspaper Articles
 Same as above
 Thesis
 Same as above.

 Website
(Website name, year) – it is always information
prominent.
 Interviews
Interviewee(s) Last name (year)
(Interviewee(s) Last name, year)
 Government Agency Publication

(Country. Department, year) – always information
prominent.

Terms that can be used
 agrees
 asserts
 believes
 claims
 comments; concedes that
 challenges; concludes; compares
 defines; delves deeper
 describes
 examines; explains; explores; echoes
Terms that can be used…
 feels; felt that
 focuses on
 goes further
 holds that
 insists; includes; identifies
 is clear that; was clear on
 maintains; mentions
 notes
 observes
 points out; points to
 prefers; poses
 provides evidence
 qualifies
 recalls; recounts
 refers to
 reminds; responds
 reports; reveals
 says; sees
 shows
 speaks of
 states; suggests
 summarises; supports
 tells; tells of
 touches on
 verifies
 writes that

Referencing/Reference List
 the reference list is usually the last page/s of the
assignment.
 it should begin on a new page and be simply
headed References/Reference List.
 a reference list consolidates all the various sources
in alphabetical order using either the author’s
surname or the names of authoring bodies.

Book with one author
Author/Last name, Initials. (Year) Title. Edition.
Place of publication: Publisher.
McDonagh, S. (2001) Why are we Deaf to the Cry of

the Earth. Dublin: Veritas.

Book with two authors
First author Last name, Initials and second author
Last name, Initials (Year) Title. Place of
publication: Publisher.
Shalloway, A. and Trott, J. (2001) Design patterns

explained: a new perspective on object-oriented design.
London: Addison Wesley.

Book with more than three authors
Authors Names. (Year) Title. Place of publication:
Publishing company.
McGeady, T.A., Quinn, P.J., Fitzpatrick, E.S. and Ryan,

M.T. (2006) Veterinary embryology. Oxford: Blackwell.

Book with an editor
Editor(s) Last name, Initials (Ed.). (Year) Title.
O'Riordan, T. (Ed.). (2001) Globalism, Localism and

Identity. London: Earthscan.

Chapter in an edited book
Author(s) Last name, Initials. (Year) 'Chapter title'.
In: Editor's(s) last name, Initials. ed(s). Book title.
Rose, H. (2000) 'Risk, Trust and Scepticism in the Age of

the New Genetics'. In: Adam, B. et al. (eds.) Risk
Society and Beyond. London: Sage.

Journal article with one author
Author Last name, Initials. (Year) 'Article title'.
Journal title, Volume (Issue): page numbers.
Tovey, H. (2002) 'Risk, Morality, and the Sociology of

Animals - Reflections of the Foot and Mouth Outbreak
in Ireland'. Irish Journal of Sociology, 11 (1):23-42.

E-journal article
Author(s) Last name, Initials. (Year) ‘Article title’,
Journal title [Internet], Volume (Issue), page numbers.
Available from: URL [Accessed day month year].
Hawke, J. L. et al, (2006). ‘Genetic influences on reading

difficulties in boys and girls: the Colorado twin study’,
Dyslexiam, 12 (1) [Internet]. Available from:
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-
bin/fulltext/112098736/PDFSTART [Accessed 10
February 2009].

Print Newspaper article
Author(s) Last name, Initials. (Year) Article title.
Newspaper title, date, page numbers.
Nyamukondiwa, W. (2015) Guzah, Simbarashe, Ziyambi

booted out. The Herald, 08 August, p.1.

Online Newspaper article
Author(s) Last name, Initials. (Year) Article title.
Newspaper title, day month of publication.
Available from URL [Day Month Year accessed]
Nyamukondiwa, W. (2015) Guzah, Simbarashe Ziyambi

booted out. The Herald, 08 August, p.1. Available from
http://www.herald.co.zw/guzahsimbarashe-ziyambi-
booted-out/ [08 August 2015].

Website
Website author. (Year published/Last updated) Title
of Internet Site. Available at: internet address
(Accessed Day Month Year)
International Tourism Partnership (2004). International

Tourism Partnership. Available at:
http://www.internationaltourismpartnership.org/
(Accessed 8 February 2009)

Interviews
Last name, Initials of person interviewed. (Year of
interview) ‘Title of the interview (if any)’.
Interview by/with Interviewer’s First name Last
name, Title of publication. Medium in which the
interview appeared (journal, audio, video etc),
date of interview, Publication details.
Mukaro, L. (2015) ‘A wining state’. Interviewed by

Richard Kohola, Star FM Radio. Audio, 12 February.
Harare: Star FM.

Government agency publication
Country. Author (Year) Title. Place of publication:
Publisher. Available at URL (Accessed Day Month
Year).
Zimbabwe. Department of Health & Child Welfare
(2006) ‘A Vision for Change’ Report of the Expert
Group on Mental Health Policy'. Harare: MoHCW
Headquarters. Available at:
http://www.dohc.ie/publications/vision_for_change.h
tml (Accessed 11 April 2014).

Theses
Author (Year of submission) Title of thesis. Degree
statement. Degree-awarding body.
Mukaro, L. (2012) Towards a semantic description of

Shona; a case for lexical meaning extension.
Unpublished PhD Thesis. Beijing Language and
Culture University.

Lecture Notes
Author’s surname/s, Initial/s. (Year of production)
Title of the lecture notes (in italics). Place of
publication: Publisher. Number of pages in
handout, distribution date, the lecture number,
module name.
Mukaro, L. (2018) Academic Writing. University of

Zimbabwe. 28‐page handout, distributed on 5th
August, Lecture 2, Communication and Negotiating
Skills.

End of Topic

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with Dr L.

L. Mukaro (PhD) MBA563 2019

L. Mukaro (PhD) MBA563 2019

L. Mukaro (PhD) MBA563 2019

Citing & referencing - Harvard, Chicago and APA

Following good practice conventions

L. Mukaro (PhD) MBA563 2019

L. Mukaro (PhD) MBA563 2019

 it’s easy to go astray even with relatively

L. Mukaro (PhD) MBA563 2019

L. Mukaro (PhD) MBA563 2019

L. Mukaro (PhD) MBA563 2019

Critique Clampitt’s (2001) approaches

L. Mukaro (PhD) MBA563 2019

L. Mukaro (PhD) MBA563 2019

L. Mukaro (PhD) MBA563 2019

L. Mukaro (PhD) MBA563 2019

L. Mukaro (PhD) MBA563 2019

L. Mukaro (PhD) MBA563 2019

L. Mukaro (PhD) MBA563 2019

L. Mukaro (PhD) MBA563 2019

L. Mukaro (PhD) MBA563 2019

L. Mukaro (PhD) MBA563 2019

L. Mukaro (PhD) MBA563 2019

L. Mukaro (PhD) MBA563 2019

L. Mukaro (PhD) MBA563 2019

L. Mukaro (PhD) MBA563 2019

L. Mukaro (PhD) MBA563 2019

L. Mukaro (PhD) MBA563 2019

L. Mukaro (PhD) MBA563 2019

L. Mukaro (PhD) MBA563 2019

L. Mukaro (PhD) MBA563 2019

L. Mukaro (PhD) MBA563 2019

L. Mukaro (PhD) MBA563 2019

L. Mukaro (PhD) MBA563 2019

L. Mukaro (PhD) MBA563 2019

(Maslow’ Hierarchy of needs, 1943)

L. Mukaro (PhD) MBA563 2019

L. Mukaro (PhD) MBA563 2019

L. Mukaro (PhD) MBA563 2019

L. Mukaro (PhD) MBA563 2019

L. Mukaro (PhD) MBA563 2019

 this technique of referring to authors in your

L. Mukaro (PhD) MBA563 2019

L. Mukaro (PhD) MBA563 2019

L. Mukaro (PhD) MBA563 2019

L. Mukaro (PhD) MBA563 2019

L. Mukaro (PhD) MBA563 2019

L. Mukaro (PhD) MBA563 2019

 Example: Austen (1813: 64)….

L. Mukaro (PhD) MBA563 2019

The conclusion reached in a recent study

Textile, Clothing & Footwear (TCF) manufacturers

L. Mukaro (PhD) MBA563 2019

 if you are referring to part of a work, you must

L. Mukaro (PhD) MBA563 2019

 Important: You would cite Maxwell, not Moore, in the

L. Mukaro (PhD) MBA563 2019

(Author Last name, year)

L. Mukaro (PhD) MBA563 2019

(First author Last name and second author Last

L. Mukaro (PhD) MBA563 2019