How is it all Connected?

• Cells = basic unit of life

• Cells come together to form TISSUES

• TISSUES come together to form ORGANS

• ORGANS come together to form SYSTEMS

• SYSTEMS come together to form US.

 4 TYPES OF TISSUES
• Epithelial Tissues:
• Covers the body’s surface and organs.
• Connective Tissues:
• Tendons, ligaments, cartilage, blood, fat,
bone
• Muscle Tissues:
• Skeletal Muscles, heart, smooth muscle
• Nervous Tissues:
• Brain, spinal cord, nerves
Tissues: groups of cells closely associated that have a
similar structure and perform a related function

• Four types of tissue

– Epithelial = covering
– Connective = support
– Muscle = movement
– Nervous = control
• Most organs contain all 4 types
• Connective tissue has non-living extra-
cellular material (matrix) between its
cells
Tissues
Tissue: A Definition

A group of connected,
interdependent cells that
cooperate to perform a
specific function
 Categories of
Tissue
1. Epithelial Tissue
2. Connective Tissue
3. Muscle Tissue
4. Nervous Tissue
 Characteristics of Epithelial Tissue
• Form continuous sheets (fit like tiles)
• Apical Surface
– All epithelial cells have a top surface that
borders an open space – known as a lumen
• Basement Membrane
– Underside of all epithelial cells which anchors
them to connective tissue
• Avascularity (a = without)
– Lacks blood vessels
– Nourished by connective tissue
• Regenerate & repair quickly
 EPITHELIAL TISSUES
• So if Epithelial tissues are on the body
surface and surround the organs, then what
do you think this type of tissue’s function is?

• Protection: Example?
• Secretion: Example?
• Absorption: Example?
• Excretion: Example?
 Epithelial Tissues
• General Features
Cellular Layer +
Basement
Membrane
 Classes of Epithelia
• Simple: just one • Stratified:
layer or cell multiple layers
shape and cell shapes
Epithelial Tissues
• General Features
Cellular Layer + Basement Membrane
No Blood Supply
Touching Each Other
Rapid Rate of Cell Reproduction
 Simple Epithelia
Typ e Cel l shap e Exa mp le
Squa m ou s Squa sh e d En dot he lium (lines bl o od
ve sse ls), me so th e liu m
(ser ou s lin ing o f ce lom )
C uboid a l C ub e d Wa lls o f g land s

C olu m na r C olu m n s Linin g o f g ut tub e ;

so me times w ith c ilia like
lin ing o f u te rine tub e
Pse udo -strat ified Fla t ce lls give rise With c ilia in re spi ra to ry
to c olu m n s tu b e s to m o ve
m u c ou s/ par tic le s out o f
lun g s
 EPITHELIAL TISSUES
• Where are they located?
• Surface of the body
• Cover the internal organs
• Compose the glands

• Distinguishing Characteristics?
• No blood vessels. Why do you think?
• Cells divide rapidly. Why is this good?
• Cells are tightly packed. How does this help us?
 Stratified Epithelia
• Squamous • Transitional
– E.g. epidermis epithelium
– E.g. urinary
structures--bladder
– Stretches from 6 cells
to 3 cells thick as
bladder fills and
expands
 Epithelial Tissues
• Structural Classification
Cell Shapes
 EPITHELIAL TISSUES
• Epithelial Tissues are classified by the
shape of their cells.
• There are 3 different epithelial tissue cell
types
• 1. Squamous: flattened cells

• 2. Cuboidal: Cube-like cells

• 3. Columnar: Elongated
Classification of Epithelial Tissue
• Cell Shape
– Squamous – flattened
like fish scales
– Cuboidal - cubes
– Columnar - columns
• Cell Layers
– Simple (one layer)
– Stratified (many layers)
• Named for the type of
cell at the apical
surface.
Squamous

Cuboidal

Columnar
 EPITHELIAL TISSUES
• The arrangement of these cells varies.
• There are two different ways to arrange
Epithelial Tissues

• 1. Simple: one layer of cells.

• 2. Stratified: two or more layers of cells.

Cell Layers

Stratified
 Simple Columnar Epithelium
• Structure
– Elongated layer of cells with nuclei at same level
• Function
– Absorption, Protection & Secretion
– When open to body cavities – called mucous membranes
• Special Features
– Microvilli, bumpy extension of apical surface, increase surface
area and absorption rate.
– Goblet cells, single cell glands, produce protective mucus.
• Location
– Linings of entire digestive tract
 Pseudostratified Epithelium
• Structure
– Irregularly shaped cells with nuclei at different
levels – appear stratified, but aren’t.
– All cells reach basement membrane
Function
Absorption and Secretion
Goblet cells produce mucus
Cilia (larger than microvilli) sweep mucus
Location
Respiratory Linings & Reproductive tract
 EPITHELIAL TISSUES
• So if Epithelial tissues are on the body
surface and surround the organs, then what
do you think this type of tissue’s function is?

• Protection: Example?
• Secretion: Example?
• Absorption: Example?
• Excretion: Example?
 Stratified Squamous
Epithelium

Function: Protection
Sample Locations: Skin, Mouth, Repro. tracts
Stratified Squamous Epithelium
• Structure
– Many layers (usually cubodial/columnar at
bottom and squamous at top)
• Function
– Protection
– Keratin (protein) is accumulated in older cells
near the surface – waterproofs and toughens
skin.
• Location
– Skin (keratinized), mouth & throat
 Transitional Epithelium
• Structure
– Many layers
– Very specialized – cells at base are cuboidal
or columnar, at surface will vary.
– Change between stratified & simple as tissue
is stretched out.
• Function
– Allows stretching (change size)
• Location
– Urinary bladder, ureters & urethra
 Keratin

Stratified
Cubodial (layers
of cubodial only)
 Transitional Epithelium
• Structure
– Many layers
– Very specialized – cells at base are cuboidal
or columnar, at surface will vary.
– Change between stratified & simple as tissue
is stretched out.
• Function
– Allows stretching (change size)
• Location
– Urinary bladder, ureters & urethra
 Glands
• One or more cells that make and secrete a
product.
• Secretion = protein in aqueous solution:
hormones, acids, oils.
• Endocrine glands
– No duct, release secretion into blood vessels
– Often hormones
– Thyroid, adrenal and pituitary glands
• Exocrine glands
– Contain ducts, empty onto epithelial surface
– Sweat, Oil glands, Salivary glands, Mammary glands.
 Shapes of Exocrine glands
Branching
 Simple – single, unbranched duct
 Compound – branched.
Shape: tubular or alveolar
 Tubular – shaped like a tube
 Alveolar – shaped like flasks or sacs
 Tubuloalveolar – has both tubes and
sacs in gland
 Modes of Secretion

• (How the gland’s product is released)

• Merocrine
– Just released by exocytosis without altering
the gland at all.
– Ex: Sweat glands and salivary glands
• Holocrine
– The gland ruptures and releases secretion
and dead cells as well.
– Sebaceous (oil glands on the face) only
example
 Epithelial Tissues
• Major Types
Simple Squamous Epithelium
Simple Squamous Epithelium
Function: Exchange
Sample Locations:
Alveoli, capillaries
Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
Function: Absorption or Secretion
Sample Locations: Kidney, Hormone
Glands
 Simple Columnar Epithelium
Function: Absorption (or Secretion)
Sample Location: Digestive Tract

Microvilli
Simple Columnar
Note goblet cells
Pseudostratified Columnar
Epithelium
Pseudostratified Columnar
Epithelium
 Pseudostratified Columnar
Epithelium
Function: Absorption, Secretion, Movement
Sample Locations: Respiratory & Repro Ducts
 Transitional Epithelium
Function: Stretchability
Sample Location: Urinary Bladder
 Quiz!! E

Can You Identify the

Classes of Epithelium?
D

A B

C
 Cell Junctions
• Desmosome: binding spots between cells
with proteins called cadherins
• Tight junctions: impermeable
– E.g. gut tube, doesn’t let enzymes from gut
into blood stream
• Gap junctions: tubes that let small
molecules pass between cells
 Features of Apical Surface of
Epithelium
 Microvilli: (ex) in small intestine
 Finger-like extensions of the plasma membrane
of apical epithelial cell
 Increase surface area for absorption
 Cilia: (ex) respiratory tubes
 Whip-like, motile extensions
 Moves mucus, etc. over epithelial surface 1-way
 Flagella: (ex) spermatoza
 Extra long cilia
 Moves cell
 Features of Lateral Surface of
Epithelium
• Cells are connected to neighboring cells via:
– Proteins-link cells together, interdigitate
– Contour of cells-wavy contour fits together
– Cell Junctions
• Desmosomes-adhesive spots on lateral sides
• Tight Junctions-at apical area, plasma membrane of
adjacent cells fuse, nothing passes
• Gap junction-spot-like junction occurring anywhere, lets
small molecules pass
 Features of the Basal Surface
of Epithelium

• Basal lamina: supportive sheet between

epithelium and underlying connective tissue
– Selective filter
• Basement membrane = basal lamina plus
underlying reticular fiber layer
– Attaches epithelium to connective tissue below
• Sometimes the two are used interchangeably
Name that Epithelial Feature!
(name and location on cell)
3
• Cilia 3

1 2 • Tight junction
1
• Microvilli
• Basement 2
membrane 4

4
 Glands: epithelial cells that make and
secrete a water-based substance
• Exocrine Glands
– Secrete substance onto body surface
or into body cavity
– Have ducts
– E.G., salivary, mammary, pancreas,
liver

• Endocrine Glands
– Secrete product into blood stream
– Either stored in secretory cells or in
follicle surrounded by secretory cells
– Hormones travel to target organ to
increase response
– No ducts
 Connective Tissues (CT)
• Defined:
• Loose CT example
• Matrix
• Fibers & their functions
– Fibroblast cells
– Collagen
– Elastin
– Fibrillin
– Fibronectin
Connective Tissues (CT)

Figure 3-22: Cells and fibers of connective tissue

 More Connective Tissues

• Dense
connective
tissue
– Tendons &
ligaments
– Collagen
dominates

Figure 3–23: Tendons and ligaments

More Connective Tissues

Figure 3-24: Adipose tissue

 Supporting Connective Tissues

• Cartilage
– Light & flexible
– Trachea & ears
• Bone
– Calcified
– Rigid
• Connective Tissues Reviewed
 Supporting Connective Tissues

• Cartilage
– Light & flexible
– Trachea & ears
• Bone
– Calcified
– Rigid
• Connective Tissues Reviewed
 More Connective Tissues

• Adipose connective tissue

– Adipocytes
– Fat vacuoles
• Blood
– Plasma matrix
– Free blood cells
 Connective Tissues
• **Comprise much of the body
• **The most abundant type of tissue by weight.
• 1. bind structures
• 2. provide support and protection
• 3. serve as a framework
• 4. fill spaces
• 5. store fat
• 6. produce blood cells
• 7. protect against infection
• 8. help repair tissue damage.
 Major Connective Tissue Cell
TYPES
• 1. Fixed cells: reside in the tissue for
extended period of time
• Example: fibroblast = large star shaped p.152

• 2. Wandering Cells: appear in tissues

temporarily in response to injury or infection.
• Example: Mast cells = release histamine that
dialates capillaries = swelling and redness.
 CONNECTIVE TISSUES

• “Areolar tissue” as model

• Universal in body
• Underlies epithelium, supports
capillaries, small nn.
• Always originates from mesenchyme
• CELLS in MATRIX
 Extracellular matrix
• Fibers
– Collagen gives structure
– Reticular fibers (crossed collagen) gives order
– Elastin gives elasticity
• Ground substance
– Jelly-like material made of sugar-protein
molecules (proteoglycans)
 Cells of Connective Tissues
• Fibroblasts make fibers
• Immune cells in areolar tissue
– Macrophages
– Plasma cells
– Mast cells
– Neutrophils, Lymphocytes
 “Loose” connective tissues
• Adipose tissue mostly under skin and in
mesenteries
• Reticular: organized 3-D network of fibers
that support lots of cells
– E.g. marrow, spleen, lymph nodes
 “Dense” Connective tissues
• Irregular
– Thick fibers running in many planes
– E.g. dermis, fibrous capsules around organs
• Regular
– Aligned parallel fibers
– Resists tension
– E.g. tendon, ligaments, aponeuroses
– Sometimes with elastic fibers (e.g. ligamentum
nuchae)
 Other Connective Tissues
• Bone
• Cartilage
• Blood
 Categories of Connective
Tissue
• 1. Loose Connective Tissue: binds the
skin to the muscle tissue below
• 2. Adipose Tissue: = fat
• These cells accumulate fat, they enlarge and
their nuclei is pushed to one side
• When they become too abundant they crowd
out other cell types and form “adipose tissue”
• Found: between muscles, around kidneys,
behind eyeballs, surface of the heart, and
around joints.
Adipose tissue
• 3. Reticular connective tissue: provides
the framework for some internal organs
(spleen, liver, lymphatic organs.
• They have collagen
• fibers
Dense Connective Tissue
• 5. Elastic Connective Tissue: found in the
attachments between bones of the spinal
column.
• Very rare in the body but are found in
large arteries such as the aorta.
• http://www.austincc.edu/histologyhelp/tiss
ues/tn_elas_ct.html
• 6. Cartilage: rigid, provides support,
framework, attachments, provides a
structural model for many developing
bones.
• Contains a large volume of water
• Lacks a direct blood supply, blood vessels
surround it, obtain nutrients by diffusion
• This is why torn cartilage heals so slowly
 3 types of cartilage
• 1. Hyaline: most common, tips of bones at
joints, soft part of the nose, supporting
rings of the trachea. Prominent in early
development.
• 2. Elastic: more flexible, ears and larynx
• 3. Fibrocartilage: very tough, shock
absorber, intervertebral discs, knees and
pelvis.
 BONE
BONE
The most amazing story of bone histology!
• 7. Bone:
• Most rigid connective tissue
• Internally supports body structures
• Very active tissue
• Heals much more rapidly than injured
cartilage because of close access to a
blood supply
 Specialized CT
• Cells
– Osteoblasts
– Osteocytes
– Osteoclasts
• Bone matrix
– Calcified material, lacunae
• And more….
– Canaliculi
– Periosteum
– Endosteum
 Functions of Bone
• Supports soft tissue
• Protects vital organs (cranium, thoracic
cavity)
• Contains bone marrow
• Reservoir of Ca++, PO4 to maintain
constant concentrations in body fluids
• Allows body to move
Anatomy of a Long Bone
• 8. Blood
• Cells suspended in fluid called PLASMA
• 1. Red blood cells: transport gases
• 2. White blood cells: fight infection
• 3. Platelets: cause blood clotting
• Where do blood cells form?
 Osteoblasts
• Synthesize organic components of matrix
(collagen type I, proteoglycans,
glycoproteins.)
• Collagen forms osteoids: strands of spiral
fibers that form matrix
• Influence deposit of Ca++, PO4.
• Active vs inactive osteoblasts
• Estrogen, PTH stimulate activity
Osteoblasts
 Osteocytes
• Mature bone cells that sit in lacunae
• Gap junctions between osteocytes provide
nutrition (15 cells in a row)
• Maintain bony matrix; long lived cells
• Stimulated by calcitonin; inhibited by PTH
Osteocyte with Cytoplasmic
Extensions
 Osteocytes with Canaliculi

Photomicrograph of dried bone ground

very thin. The lacunae and canaliculi
filled with air deflect the light and
appear dark, showing the
communication between these structures
through which nutrients derived from
blood vessels flow. Medium
magnification.
 Osteoclasts
• Derived from monocytes; engulf bony
material
• Active osteoblasts stimulate osteoclast
activity
• Large, branched, motile cells
• Secrete enzymes that digest matrix
Osteoclasts
Bone Resorption
On this image,
the deepest red Remodeling
color is bone
while pink
represents
either
fibrocartilage
(i.e., collagen
within
cartilage) or
mineralized
cartilage.  The
central clearing
represents the
invasion of bone into calcified cartilage.  Osteoblasts are laying down
new bone toward the left of the upper boundary of this cavity. 
osteoclasts are removing previously-formed bone .
Remodelin
Remodeling
g
Bone Replacing Cartilage
Remodeling Bone
Endochondral Ossification
 Previous slide
• Photomicrograph of endochondral ossification.
In the upper region is a row of osteoblasts with
intense cytoplasmic basophilia, a feature to be
expected in cells synthesizing a glycoprotein
(collagen). Note an osteoblast being captured in
the bone matrix (arrow). Between the layer of
osteoblasts and the calcified bone matrix is a
pale region made of noncalcified bone matrix
called osteoid. PT stain. Medium magnification.
 Periosteum
Mesenchyme
Fibroblasts
Osteoprogenitor
cells
Bone Replacing Cartilage
 Osteon
• Long cylinder parallel to long axis of
diaphysis
• Consists of:
– Haversian canal with nerves, blood vessels;
lamellae with osteocytes
• Haversian canals communicate with
marrow cavity, periosteum, other canals
through Volkmann’s canals
Compact Bone
OSTEONS (wow!)
Canaliculi between Osteocytes
 Muscle Tissues
• Contractile
– Force
– Movement
• Excitable- they
conduct signals
• Types
– Cardiac
– Smooth
– Skeletal
Figure 12-1: Three types of muscles