Components of a nuclear reactor - typical

Nuclear reactor core

Reactor vessel
Heat exchangers
Boiler feed water pump Nuclear fuel
Steam generators Neutron moderator
Steam turbine Neutron poison
Electricity generator Coolant
Condenser Control rods
Cooling tower
Containment building
Control room
Emergency Operations Facility
 Materials in Nuclear Reactors
Materials that are consumed - Fuel
Materials that participate in energy transfer or reactions –
Moderator, Coolant, control rod…..
Materials that shield the radiations – Shielding material, steel,
concrete….

Materials that hold the fuel – Fuel cladding

Materials that hold the fuel pins or fuel bundles – Wrapper
PERIODICALLY CHANGED – SHORT LIFE SPAN IN REACTORS

Materials of construction of the reactor – Reactor vessels, grids,

pumps, heat exchangers……..
Materials of construction of the roof slab
Materials of construction of the steam generator components -
PERMANENT STRUCTURES
3
 Materials in Nuclear Reactors
Materials that are consumed - Fuel
Materials that participate in energy transfer or reactions –
Moderator, Coolant, control rod…..
Materials that shield the radiations – Shielding material, steel,
concrete….

Materials that hold the fuel – Fuel cladding

Materials that hold the fuel pins or fuel bundles – Wrapper
PERIODICALLY CHANGED – SHORT LIFE SPAN IN REACTORS

Materials of construction of the reactor – Reactor vessels, grids,

pumps, heat exchangers……..
Materials of construction of the roof slab
Materials of construction of the steam generator components -
PERMANENT STRUCTURES
4
 Nuclear Fuel

Important Properties of Fuel Materials:

Thermal Conductivity
Thermal expansion
Melting temperature (solidus temperature)
Compatibility with clad, coolant
Mechanical properties such as hardness, creep etc

 Fissile Nuclides – Fissionable by neutrons of all energies

235U, 239Pu, 233U

Natural U contains 0.7% 235U

 Fertile Nuclides - Can be converted to Fissile Nuclides
238U, 232Th
 Nuclear Fuel
 Chemical Form - Oxide, Carbide, Nitride, Metal or Alloy
 Fuels
Natural UO2 PHWR
Enriched UO2, (U,Pu)O2 BWR
(U.45Pu.55)C, (U.30Pu.70)C FBTR
(U.21Pu.79)O2, (U.28Pu.72)O2 PFBR
U-19Pu-10Zr Future FBRs

Advantages:
 High Fissile atom density
 High Breeding Ratio and Low doubling time
Disadvantages:
 Anisotropic expansion and dimensional instability
 Low melting point  Low operating temperature
 FISSION CROSS SECTION

Cross section (barns) as a function of neutron energy for 235U,

showing increase in fission probability with lower neutron energy
 FISSION CROSS SECTION

Probability of fission events is determined by fission cross

section, which is dependent upon the speed (energy) of the
incident neutrons.

For thermal reactors, high-energy neutrons in the MeV-

range are much less likely to cause further fission.

The newly-released fast neutrons, moving at roughly 10% of

the speed of light, must be slowed down or "moderated",
typically to speeds of a few kilometres per second, if they
are to be likely to cause further fission in neighboring
235U nuclei and continue the chain reaction.

This speed is equivalent to temperatures in the few hundred

celsius range.
 Thermal Reactors

Neutron sources generate free neutrons by a variety of nuclear

reactions, and they are released with kinetic energies (KE) of
several MeV.

Neutrons, fast at birth are slowed down, ie moderated, using

elastic scattering in light elements.

The coolant acts as a moderator that slow down the neutrons

before they can be efficiently absorbed by the fuel.
 MODERATOR

The energy of the neutron is lowered by predominantly elastic

collisions i.e., the total kinetic energy and momentum of the
system (that of neutron and nucleus) is conserved.

As neutrons are very light compared to most nuclei, most efficient

way of removing kinetic energy is by choosing a moderating nucleus
that has near identical mass

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 MODERATOR

Choice of moderator materials

• Low mass
• High scattering cross section
• Low absorption cross sections

Commonly used moderators are light water,

heavy water and graphite.

Beryllium has been used in some experimental ones

and hydrocarbons have also been suggested.

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 MODERATOR
Moderating efficiency gives the ratio of the macroscopic cross
sections of scattering, Σs, weighted by ξ divided by that of
absorption, Σa:
For a compound moderator, example H2O or D2O: moderating and
absorbing effect of both hydrogen isotope and oxygen atom is used
to calculate ξ.
To bring a neutron from the fission energy of E0 2 MeV to an E of 1
eV takes an expected n of 16 and 29 collisions for H2O and D2O,
respectively.
Therefore, neutrons are more rapidly moderated by light water, as
H has a far higher Σs. However, it also has a far higher Σa, so that
the moderating efficiency is nearly 80 times higher for heavy water
than for light water.
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 MODERATOR
Graphite moderated reactors
Water moderated reactors
Heavy water reactors – D2O
Light water moderated reactors (LWRs) - H2O

Light element moderated reactors - Li or Be moderated

Molten Salt reactors (MSRs) - Li or Be moderated which are
constituents of the coolant/fuel matrix salts LiF and BeF2.

Liquid metal cooled reactors, with Pb or Bi coolant - BeO as

moderator.

Organically moderated reactors (OMR) - biphenyl and terphenyl as

moderator and coolant.
 Neutron reflector
Neutron reflector is any material that reflects neutrons
by elastic scattering.
 To cut down the neutron leakage losses from core
 Desired properties same as moderators

The material may be graphite, Be, steel and also heavy materials like
lead, tungsten carbide, or other materials. A neutron reflector can
make an otherwise sub-critical mass of fissile material critical.

Water
Heavy Water
Thermal Reflectors
Beryllium
Graphite

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 NEUTRON POISON

A nuclear poison, also called neutron poison is a substance with a

large neutron absorption cross-section in reactors, when
absorbing neutrons is an undesirable effect. However neutron-
absorbing materials, also called poisons, are intentionally inserted
into reactors in order to lower the high reactivity of their initial
fresh fuel load. Some of these poisons deplete as they absorb
neutrons during reactor operation, while others remain relatively
constant.

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 CONTROL ROD MATERIALS
Control rods made of a nuclear poison are used to absorb neutrons,
which means that there are fewer neutrons available to cause
fission; so pushing the control rod deeper into the reactor will
reduce its power output, and extracting the control rod will
increase it.

A control rod is made of chemical elements capable of absorbing

many neutrons without fissioning themselves. The
elements have different capture cross sections for neutrons of varying
energies. The composition of control rod should be uniquely designed
for each reactor.

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CONTROL ROD MATERIALS - Selection Criteria

Neutron absorption cross section

Adequate mechanical strength
Corrosion resistance
Chemical and dimensional stability
(under prevailing temperature and irradiation
conditions)
Relatively low mass to allow rapid movement
Fabricability
Availability and reasonable cost

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 CONTROL ROD MATERIALS
Boron, Silver, Indium, Cadmium, Hafnium, Dysprosium, Gadolinium, Samarium,
Erbium, Europium or their alloys and compounds: - e.g. high-boron steel, Ag-In-Cd
alloy, boron carbide, zirconium diboride, titanium diboride, hafnium diboride ,
gadolinium titanate, and dysprosium titanate.
Element Thermal
Neutron Capture
Cross section
Boron 767 BWR (Clad in 304
B 4C
Silver 64 SS)
Indium 194 PWR (Clad in CW
80% Ag- 5%In+5%Cd
Cadmium 2450 304 SS, Inconel
B 4C 627)
Hafnium 72
Dysprosium 920 B 4C LMFBR
Gadolinium 49000
Samarium 5922
Erbium 160
Europium 4600 18
 CONTROL ROD MATERIALS
Boron - Due to different cross sections of 10B and 11B, boron containing
materials enriched in 10B by isotopic separation are frequently used. The
wide absorption spectrum of boron makes it suitable also as a neutron shield.

Hafnium - has good mechanical strength, can be easily fabricated, and is

resistant to corrosion in hot water. Hf can be alloyed with small amounts of
other elements; e.g. tin and oxygen to increase tensile and creep strength,
iron, chromium and niobium for corrosion resistance, and molybdenum for
wear resistance, hardness, and machine ability - designated as Hafaloy,

Dysprosium titanate is a new material currently undergoing evaluation for

pressurized water control rods. Dysprosium titanate is a promising
replacement for Ag-In-Cd alloys because it has a much higher melting point,
does not tend to react with cladding materials, is easy to produce, does not
produce radioactive waste, does not swell, and does not outgas.

Hafnium diboride is another such new material. It can be used standalone

or prepared in a sintered mixture of hafnium and boron carbide powders.
 Thermal neutron capture cross-sections of elements[1]
0.00019 O 8 0.96 Pt 78 6.8 Br 35 6.09 Ti 22 160 Er 68
0.0035 C 6 1.11 Zn 30 6.9 Pd 46 6.2 I 53 168.4 Pm 61
0.007 He 2 1.15 Nb 41 7.37 Th 90 34.8 Yb 70 180 Np 93
0.0092 Be 4 1.28 Y 39 7.57 U 92 35.5 Cl 17 194 In 49
0.0096 F 9 1.28 Sr 38 8.98 La 57 37.2 Co 27 200.6 Pa 91
0.03 Po 84 1.3 Ba 56 11.5 Pr 59 49 Nd 60 374 Hg 80
0.034 Bi 83 1.91 N 7 11.7 Se 34 63.6 Ag 47 425 Ir 77
0.04 Ne 10 2.1 K 19 12.8 Ra 88 65 Ho 67 515 Ac 89
0.063 Mg 12 2.2 Ge 32 13.3 Mn 25 70.5 Li 3 710 Bk 97
0.171 Pb 82 2.56 Ru 44 15 Os 76 75.3 Am 95 767 B 5
0.171 Si 14 2.56 Fe 26 18.3 W 74 79 Cm 96 920 Dy 66
0.172 P 15 2.6 Mo 42 20 Tc 43 84 Lu 71 1017.3 Pu 94
0.184 Zr 40 2.9 Ga 31 20.6 Ta 73 89.7 Re 75 2450 Cd 48
0.232 Al 13 3.1 Cr 24 23.4 Tb 65 98.7 Au 79 2900 Cf 98
0.3326 H 1 3.43 Tl 81 23.9 Xe 54 100 Tm 69 4600 Eu 63
0.38 Rb 37 3.78 Cu 29 25 Kr 36 104 Hf 72 5800 Fm 100
0.43 Ca 20 4.3 As 33 27.2 Sc 21 144.8 Rh 45 5922 Sm 62
0.53 S 16 4.49 Ni 28 29 Cs 55 160 Es 99 49000 Gd 64

0.53 Na 11 4.7 Te 52

0.6 Ce 58 4.91 Sb 51

0.626 Sn 50 5.08 V 23

0.675 Ar 18

0.72 Rn 86
 SHIELDING MATERIAL
To protect personnel and equipment from the
damaging effects of radiation

Good moderating capability

Reasonable absorption cross section
Cost and space availability
Neutron, ,  and  shielding
Both light and heavy nuclei are preferred

 WATER
 PARAFFIN
 POLYETHYLENE
 Pb, Fe, W
 Boral (B4C in Al matrix)
 Concrete

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 Nuclear Reactor Coolant
A coolant in a nuclear reactor that is used to remove heat from
the nuclear reactor core and transfer it to electrical generators and
the environment. Frequently a chain of two coolant loops is used
because the primary coolant loop takes on short-term radioactivity
from the reactor.

Low melting point

High boiling point
Low vapor pressure
Low density
Low neutron absorption cross section
High thermal conductivity
Non toxic
Low pumping power
No induced radioactivity
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 Nuclear Reactor Coolant

Coolant M.pt B.pt

Light water at 155 bar 345 °C

Mercury -38.83 °C 356.73 °C

NaK eutectic -11 °C 785 °C

Sodium 97.72 °C 883 °C

F-Li-Be 459 °C 1430 °C

Lead 327.46 °C 1749 °C

Lead-bismuth eutectic 123.5 °C 1670 °C

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 Major Power Reactors and their Components
Reactor Coolant Fuel Control Rod
Type Primary Alternates Primary Alternates

BWR H2O UO2a UO2a, (U-Pu)O2a,b B4C, UO2-

Gd2O3
PWR H2O UO2a UO2a (U-Pu)O2a,b Al2O3-B4C UO2-Gd2O3
(U-Th)O2a,b
HWR D2O UO2a (U-Pu)O2a B4C
AGR CO2 UO2a (U-Pu)O2a -
HTGR He UC2c (U-Pu)O2c, (U- B4C Gd2O3-Al2O3,
(ThO2) ThO2)c Eu2O3
(UO2)
GCFR He (U-Pu)O2a (U-Pu)C,a,c (U- B4C Eu2O3
Pu)Na,c
LMFBR Na (U-Pu)O2a (U-Pu)C,a,b (U- B4C Eu2O3
Pu)Na, (U-Pu)O2b
-
LWBR H2O (U-Th)O2a -
a pellets; b sphere-pac; c coated particles