CHAPTER 8 Optical Networks and Technologies

CHAPTER 8 Optical Networks and Technologies
 Contents
 Basics
 Framing
 cross-connections
 Clocking – PDH, SDH
 Network Layers
 Carrier-Class objectives
 Network Architecture and Topologies
 Rate hierarchy
 Multiplexing
 Service Adaptation
 Protection Switching
 FCAPS concept
 Network Management
 Digital Wrapper
 WDM
 Optical Path - Elements
 Optical transmission - Defects
 OADM
Copyright 2006 Wipro Technologies 1

Fiber Optic Cable
2
Cable Structures
3
Snell’s Law
4
Total Internal Reflection
Light
5
Dispersion
 The light rays launched into the fiber at different angles of

incidence, travel different lengths to reach the receiver.
 Since they are all not in phase, the resultant light pulse will
have spread out. This is called as dispersion.
 Dispersion depends on the type of fiber and on the length

of the fiber.
6
Types of fibers
 They are broadly classified as

 Step-index fibers
 Graded-index fibers
 The refractive index is uniform throughout the core, in the
case of the Step-index fibers.
 In the Graded-index fibers, the refractive index is varied in
a calculated manner, being maximum at the axis and
reducing as one goes radially outward
7
Fiber Classification
8
Light Sources
9
Optical comm. system
10
Framing – Generic format in Optical networks
S
Physical Line
Y Path Payload
section Multiplex
N
C
125 µs
•SYNC – Used for frame synchronization – only in asynchronous PDH

•Physical Section Overhead : Framing, Multi-frame alignment, Management
communication channels, Section Error monitoring, Connectivity checks across
Regenerators
•Line Multiplex Overhead : Error monitoring between Line termination endpoints, Message
based Management communication channels –to initiate various operations at line/ADM
level, Connectivity Checks across LTE/ADMs, Multiplex description of payload, Clock
synchronization and recovery(stuff bits in case of PDH), Line protection Switching. Path
payload start pointer for recovering multiplexed path signals.
•Path Overhead – Error monitoring between PTEs, Payload description, Path Concatenation
– monitoring and maintenance, Connectivity tracing, Parity error checks, Path protection
Switching
•Payload – Encapsulated frames of various types –Digital Voice channels, Ethernet, Fiber-
Channel, RF-Video, Management frames and so on, Stuffed bits, Signalling bits
Framing - SONET Layers
Function
Payload Mapping
Path Layer Information Path Error Monitoring
Payload OH
Synchronization
Multiplexing
Error Monitoring
Line Layer Line Line Maintenance
Protection Switch
OH Order Wire
Framing
Scrambling
Section Section Error Monitoring
Section Maintenance
Layer OH Orderwire
E/O Conversion
Pulse Shaping
Photonic Power Level
Layer E/O Conversion Wavelenght
Transmission over OC-N OH: Overhead

Copyright 2006 Wipro Technologies
Framing – SONET STS-1 Frame
125 Microseconds

Clocking - Plesichronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH)
 Transitions of the signals do not necessarily occur with the same nominal rate or
at same instants of time
 Network Elements use their own clocks (no reference – not synchronized)
 Large variations occur in the clock rate and thus the signal bit rate
Bit / 100 pulses

Stream A
Bit
/ 99 pulses
Stream B
Time
Must stuff a dummy pulse into stream B prior to multiplexing
 During multiplexing, extra bits are added (bit-stuffing) to account

for the variations of each individual stream
 Asynchronous multiplexing uses multiple stages (ex. DS0 – DS1 –
DS2 – DS3 in PDH)
 To access a low speed signal, full demultiplexing is required.
 E.g. to access a DS-1 within a DS-3 for purposes such as add and
drop, the entire DS-3 has to be demultiplexed and then multiplexed
 Requires complicated multiplexing/demultiplexing
Clocking - Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH/SONET)
 Digital transitions of the Signals occur with exactly the same rate and at
same instants of time
 Small phase difference possible due to propagation delays
 All NE clocks are traceable to one Primary Reference Clock (PRC)
 Deterministic multiplexing - lower signal can directly be accessed from
the high speed signal.
 Use of accurate network clocking allows SONET to use byte Multiplexing
- simple/efficient
 Facilitates Add/Drop
 Enables Drop and Repeat (continue)

Clocking - Distribution in Synchronous Networks
Network Synchronization is the distribution of a reference clock over the
network to align all the network element clocks
Captive Office
Satellite Fed GPS

Cesium clock Receiver
BITS
BITS Timed
NE’s with
NE NE
Sync
modules
Line Timed
NE NE
BITS – Building Integrated Timing Supply

Multiplexing - TDM Multiplexing
Client Side Network Element Network Side
1
Ex STS-1
Time Slot
Assignment
2 Ex STS-1 1 2 3 Ex STS-3C
Client Network
Ports Ports
1..N
Network Signals
3 Ex STS-1
Aggregated
Higher rates
Client Signals
(Lower Rates) Client to Network Traffic
Network to Client Traffic

Cross-connections - TDM cross-connect - Time Slot
Interchange (TSI)
Aggregate/Line side
Client/Tributary side (OC-12 Interface)
DS-3 STS-1 #1
STS-1 #2
STS-1 #1 STS-1 #3
STS-1 #2 STS-1 #4
STS-1 #3 STS-1 #5
STS-1 #6 To
STS-1 STS-1 #7
STS-1 Transmitter
STS-1 #8
STS-1 STS-1 #9
DS-3 STS-1 #10
STS-1 STS-1 #11
STS-1 #12
OC-3c
•Timeslots from different client ports can be assigned to a single network port (as shown above)
•All timeslots for contiguous signals (ex. OC-3C) must go into same network port.
•The timeslot mapping can be different across both directions

Wireline Digital Network – Multiplex - Add/Drop/Passthru
Network Element
PassThrough Traffic
1 2 3 4 2 3 4 5 2 3 4
Add Traffic
Drop 1 Network Ports

5
Network Ports Traffic (East Side)
(West Side)
Note: Add/Drop
can be done
to/from either
Client Ports east or west side

Network Architecture - SONET
Note: Slides 180,181 can be substituted for this slide

Network Architecture – SONET Layers
• Section Termination (STE) - Span between regens

• Line Termination (LTE) - Span(s) between muxes
• Path Termination (PTE) - SONET path ends
Network Architecture - SONET/SDH – Network element
types
 Does 3R(Regenerate, Retime,
Reshape) regeneration.
 Also called a repeater
 Very less in the field now because
of optical in-line amplifiers
 Combine lower rate signals

into higher rate (multiplexer)
 Input can be PDH, Ethernet,or
OC-N signals
 Lower rate signals can be

extracted and inserted into a
higher rate signal and have
other signals pass-through
 Extended form of Terminal
Muxes with dual direction
Network Architecture – Network Element Types
 Switch or cross-connect various

inputs to various outputs
 Usually a mix of ADM capability
with Time-slot Interchange
• Each of these elements in a Wireline Digital Network is called a

Network Element (NE)
• A NE is uniquely identified in the network using a unique OSI/TCP/IP
address – so other elements can access the NE
• NE can be a termination node (for path/services and lines) or it can be
an intermdiate node

Network Topology – Optical Network
Linear chain
Ring Hub (Digital Cross-connect Systems)
NE E
East and West directions in a Ring

Network Topology - Description
 Hub
 Simplest form of topology
 Needs an aggregator card and tributary interfaces
 Linear chain
 Can have multiple line cards and tributaries in the same shelf.
Multiple line cards to have the linear chain connecting the ADM (line
mux) equipments
 Ring
 Referred to as Ring Add/Drop Multiplexer
 East and West Line Interfaces
 Tributaries or clients can be connected to either the East or the West
Line interfaces

Rate Hierarchy - PDH
J5 E5
J4 DS4 E4
J3 DS3 E3
J2 DS2 E2
J1 DS1 (T1) E1
T0, E0

Rate Hierarchy – SDH Multiplexing

SONET/SDH Signal Hierarchy – Mapping and rates
Line Rate SONET Optical SDH

(Mbps) Hierarchy Carrier Hierarchy
51.84 STS-1 OC-1 STM-0
155.52 STS-3 OC-3 STM-1
622.08 STS-12 OC-12 STM-4
2488.32 STS-48 OC-48 STM-16
9953.28 STS-192 OC-192 STM-64

Multiplexing - Virtual Tributaries
Multiplexing - Process
30
Multiplexing – Virtual Tributaries
 Virtual Tributaries (VT)
 VT1.5 (1.728 Mbps – 9 rows x 3 columns) – T1 (DS1)
 VT2 (2.304 Mbps – 9 rows x 4 columns) – E1
 VT3 (3.456 Mbps – 9 rows x 6 columns) – DS1C
 VT4 (6.912 Mbps – 9 rows x 12 columns) – DS2
 7 Virtual Tributary Groups each with 12 columns per STS-1

 Number of VTs per VTG
 4 VT1.5s
 3 VT2s
 2 VT3s
 1 VT6
 A VT group can contain only one size of VTs

 Different VT size is allowed for each VT group in an STS-1 SPE
 VTs also have overhead bytes
Multiplexing - STS Multiplexing – STS-1 to STS-3C
125 Microseconds
Service Adaptation – Services Supported
 Wireline network supports following data types in it’s payload

 Plain Old Telephone Service (POTS) – Voice signals
 High-order, Low-order Multiplexed Signals
 ISDN signals
 ATM
 Frame Relay
 Ethernet
 DSQDB – Cable Video
 H.323
 MPEG
 Fiber-Channel
 Test signals
 Any other proprietory mapping

Service Adaptation - How do you carry non TDM traffic
in SONET?
 If the traffic fits into a STS-1 (51 Mbps), it can be carried inside a
STS-1 frame
 If it is more (e.g. 100 Mbps Ethernet)?
 SONET provides a mechanism called contiguous concatenation
 In contiguous concatenation, multiple STS-1s are merged (rates
being STS-3, STS-12 etc) and there is only one POH for the same
 The rest of the overhead bytes are left as undefined/fixed
 Contiguous concatenation rules
 The STS-1s that form the contiguously concatenated payload
must be contiguous in the final multiplexed payload
 The contiguously concatenated signal is referred to with a “c”
suffix (STS-3c, OC-3c, STS-12c, OC-12c, STS-48c, OC-48c
etc)
 A contiguous concatenated signal cannot be split into N STS-
1s
Service Adaptation - Ethernet and other services Over
SONET
DA SA T TG Payload FCS
GFP GFP
DA SA T TG Payload FCS GFP IDLE
Header FCS
774 BYTES
774 BYTES
86 cols
86 cols
9 Rows
9 Rows
1 2
•2XSTS-1 Concatenated – Shows one Ethernet frame, GFP encapsulated and sent across 2 STS-1
frames
• Shows how a single ethernet frame is fragmented and reassembled and shows GFP idle frame fill for
rate adaptation
Optical network – Carrier Class Objectives
Defining carrier grade

 99.999% up time (network can be down for only around 5 minutes in a
whole year)
 What does this imply?
 Reliable traffic protection mechanism for guaranteed restoration of service in
case of a failure
 50 ms (milliseconds) to restore back from a fault
 Redundancy at all levels
 Fault / Performance monitoring capability (Even from remote terminal)
 Quick detection and isolation of faults - Fail-fast and fail-safe, Graceful-
shutdown on catastrophic events
 In-service Upgrade and maintenance without service hit
 Maintaining Service-Level-Agreements as agreed-upon with customer
 The term “carrier grade” originated from the optical systems (SONET/SDH
equipment) because of their reliability
To ensure protection switching within 50ms, Wireline Networks have a

Automatic Protection Switch protocol signals. There are various
protection switch configurations possible as shown in next slide.

Protection Switching – Protection Switch configuration
types
Automatic Protection Switching

(APS)
Linear Ring
APS APS
UPSR/ BLSR/
1+1 1:N SNCP MS-SPRing

Protection Switching – 1+1 Linear APS
Permanent
TM Working Channel
Traffic TM Traffic
Bridge Selector
Switch
APS REG
APS
Control Protection Channel Control Traffic
Switch @
Working Channel Tail end
TM TM
Uni-Directional Switching
APS REG APS
Control Protection Channel Control
Traffic Traffic
Switch @ Switch @
Head end Working Channel Tail end
TM TM
Bi-Directional Switching
APS REG APS
Control Protection Channel Control
Protection Switching – 1:N Linear APS
Working Channel # 1
TM TM
Working Channel # 2
TM TM
Protection Loop
Protection Loop
Working Channel # N
TM TM
Extra – Traffic Flow

TM TM
REG
Protection Channel
Idle Scenario
Protection Switching – Uni-Directional Ring Protection
(UPSR/SNCP)
Traffic Switch to
Node B the Protection
Path @ Tail End
Node A
Working Node C
Protection
Node D
Node E ADM
•In figure above traffic from Node-A to Node-C is protected by Uni-directional ring protection
•The working ring (where traffic flows) will be Node-A->Node-E->Node-D->Node-C via the anti-
clockwise (blue) ring
• The protect traffic will flow via Node-A->Node-B->Node-C will the clockwise ring (orange ring).
• Nodes B,E,D are intermediate nodes which will pass through the Node-A->Node-C traffic
•After a failure in work ring, Node C detects the failure and selects the traffic from protect ring (in
orange)
•Note: UPSR is only at Sonet path level protection. Which implies in a UPSR configuration, many such
paths/flows can be created across 2 nodes which can be in UPSR protection (as shown in Node-A-C
example above)
Protection Switching – Bi-Directional Ring Protection
(2-Fiber) (BLSR)
Connection
Working
NE 1
Span Failure Protection

Span In case of span failure, the
intermediate nodes sense
failure and loop around
Ring forming a single ring of daisy
chained nodes – we will have
an unprotected ring (still
carrying traffic)
NE 4 NE 2
Different colors indicate timeslots for

traffic – As we see in one ring only
one ½ of timeslots are used for active
W P
traffic and other half for protection.
Traffic in blue uses clockwise ring as
work-ring. Traffic in yellow uses
W P
anti-clockwise ring as work ring –
Both are protected by timeslots in
counterpart ring
NE 3
•The main difference with UPSR is that active traffic will go in each ring i.e we can have traffic from NE1->NE4->NE3 in
counter-clockwise ring as well as in NE1->NE2->NE3 in clockwise ring
•In each ring only one ½ of timeslots will be used for traffic – other half is for protection.
•Work traffic in Clockwise ring will be protected by protect timeslots in anti-clockwise ring and vice-versa.
• This way, if both fibers in one span fail,we still have the ring (unlike UPSR)

Protection Switching –2-Fiber BLSR
2-fiber BLSR Ring Switch due to single (working and protection) fiber breaks on a section
Connection
Working Nodes in pass through
NE 1
Protection
Protection
NE 4 Switching Nodes
NE 2
Fiber breaks
NE 3

Wireline Digital Network – 4-Fiber BLSR
4-fiber BLSR Ring Switch due to working and protection fiber breaks on a section
Connection
NE 1
Protection
Working
NE 4 NE 2
NE 3

4-fiber BLSR Span Switch due to working fiber break on a section
NE 1
Protection
Working
NE 4 NE 2
Fiber break
Switching Nodes
NE 3

4-fiber BLSR Ring Switch due to working and protection fiber breaks on a section
Connection
Nodes in pass through
NE 1
Protection
Working
Protection
NE 4 Switching Nodes
NE 2
Fiber breaks
NE 3

FCAPS – NE Management Paradigm
 Fault Management (3)

 Recognize, isolate, fix and log faults that occur in the network
 Trend Analysis to predict
 Configuration (2)
 Gather and store configurations from network devices
 Simplify configuration of the device and track changes to it
 Provision circuits or paths through non-switched networks
 Upgrade of software, Database
 Accounting / Administration (5)
 Billing records
 Privileged access and operations
 Performance Management (4)
 Determine efficiency of the network
 Throughput, utilization, error rates and response times
 Collect data and Trend analysis
 Security (1)
 Controlling access to assets in the network Source: Wikipedia
 Authentication, encryption
FCAPS - Configuration
Wireline Digital Transport Network

Access Network Access Network
Twisted
Line Section(s)
Pair Twisted
Fiber Fiber Fiber Fiber
Pair
CPE PTE Regen LTE Regen PTE CPE
Path Path
ADM
Service Adaptation Line-A Line-B Adaptation Service
Path XC
2 1 2 3
3 2 1
NMS

FCAPS - Configuration
 External Network Management System Server issues the

configuration commands to all Network elements along the Path
 The configuration a.k.a provisioning is done in order of
dependency like
 Network Elements (Regen, LTE, PTE)
 Fibers connecting them
 Lines, Optical Wavelengths used for transport
 Paths used for service
 Cross-Connections to create a end-end path from one PTE to other
 Services (CPEs) to be transported via the configured end-end path
 Configuration also involved administrative operations like
 Controlling login access to NE
 Enable/Disable of Network management interfaces at NE
 Store/Restore of Configuration Database
 Upgrade of NE software

FCAPS – Fault Management
Polled Hardware Defect Alarm Severities
Hardware Critical, Major, minor
Alarm Service Affecting Characteristics
Condition Service Affecting, Non Service
Defect (After Affecting
Debouncing)
Alarm/
Fault
Masking
defects Any change in
-2.5 s – On time Alarm State is
reported to
-10 s – Off time operator
Masking
Debouncing: Conditions
Conditions
• Defect status should be ON continuously derived from
for 2.5 seconds before it is reported as a
(Debounced)
other defects
condition with ON and debounced
•Defect status should be OFF continuously
for 10 seconds before it is reported as
condition with OFF

FCAPS – Fault Management
 Hardware indicates defects detected at Section,Line,Path,Service

layers
 Some hardware defects can mask others (ex. Powerfail can mask
Line defects)
 Fault Management Software will poll the hardware at sufficient
intervals – so that not to miss a defect transition. Typically every
250ms or 500ms.
 The integrator portion of FM software will do debouncing of
defects for 2.5s/10s.
 The debounced defect now becomes a “condition” and can be
masked by higher priority “condition” as per alarm hierarchy
defined in the standards.
 After masking the condition becomes an alarm and will be
reported to the operator if the state changes from 1->0 or 0->1.

FCAPS – Performance Monitoring
1-Sec counter-type 1
Sec
1Sec tick
Polled from Cumulative
Hardware Counter-Type Status
Counter
Defect Accumulator Normal counter-type
Current
Bin-1
Metered-Type
15-Min
Measurement Monitor Bin-2 OR
24 Hour
…
History
Bins
Bin-N
MIN MAX
Threshold
Value
Threshold
(for that PM Comparator cross
entity)
alert

FCAPS – Performance Management
 Defects (Ex. Loss Of Signal) from hardware are polled by PM

software so that it does not miss out defect transitions (typically
125ms or 250ms)
 If it is a measurement unit (Ex. Optical Power), it is polled from
hardware as well so as not to miss out variations.
 The defects are accumulated into performance counters and put
into history bins(15mins/24hrs). If during accumulation, their
value exceeds a threshold set, a threshold cross alert event is
sent.
 In case of metered-type parameters, the minimum and maximum
value of that measured unit in that time interval is updated and
stored in history bins(15mins/24hrs)
 Some of counters can be cumulative i.e they do not have any
history bins, they keep on counting even after wrap.

Network Management – Optical Network Elements and
Management

Network Management - Elements
• EMS – Directly logs into NE for doing FCAPS function
• NMS – GUI based (Html/Proprietory) server, which communicates
with NE using management protocols run over OSI/TCP/IP/SNMP
for doing the FCAPS function.
•Gateway NE – NE which forwards requests from NMS to
appropriate NE in the ring to which it is attached to.
•External user (from EMS, NMS) have to provide proper
authentication for logging into NE.
• NE can also restrict access/curtail privileges for doing some
operations.

SONET ring structure
55
Network Architecture - Wireline Digital Network –
Complete View
PDH SONET/SDH Optical
Cross
connect
Switches Sonet
Crossconnect
switches
Optical
WDM links
Terminal
Multiplexors Add/Drop
Multiplexors
Optical Nodes
(sometimes Ethernet
Network topologies from Access to Core based– Non-SONET)
TDM WDM
Digital Wrapper – Digital Wrapper Architecture
IP
Gigabit Ethernet (Up

SONET/SDH
to 10G)
Digital Wrapper + WDM
Fiber

Digital Wrapper - Necessity
 Need to support and management of Gbps speed multi-wavelengths

 Need a transport which is agnostic to client signal structures (Sonet,
Native ethernet)
 Need a transport which provides management mechanisms at various
trail monitoring levels
 Need transport which provides FEC and which avoids retransmission of
signals like video
 Need a transport which multiplexes low-order tributary signals into
higher order signals and wavelengths.
 Need means to consolidate/aggregate growing number of wavelengths
which support low-rate signals – to a single wavelength supporting
higher rates (need ways to reduce fibers and the wavelengths within
them) – without modifying client signals and their OAM mechanisms (i.e
without any additional Capital Expenditure)
 Need a transport and control mechanism to handle multiplexed WDM
signals and handling errors at wavelength levels.

Digital Wrapper – Digital Wrapper Transport
Client Signals –SONET,
Optical Channel Optical Channel Optical Channel Ethernet, Digital
Protocol Unit (OPU ) Protocol Unit (OPU ) Protocol Unit (OPU )
Wrapper
Optical Protocol Layer
Digital Optical Data Layer

Optical Channel Optical Channel Optical Channel
Data Unit (ODU ) Data Unit (ODU ) Data Unit (ODU ) Wrapper
ODU Multiplexing
OCH Overhead
Optical Channel Transport Unit (OTU ) Optical Transmission Layer signals
Optical Channel Optical Channel Optical Channel

Optical Supervisory
(OCH1) (OCH2) (OCHn) Channel
λ1 λ2 λn λosc
Optical Multiplex Section (OMS)
λ1, λ2,.. λn, λosc

WDM
Optical Transport Section (OTS)
Fiber
DWDM – Why WDM?
 TDM has its limits
 Non linear effects
 Scaling to higher bandwidths –
Need more high speed hardware
 Need for regular OEO – which do
not scale up for higher data rates
 Electrical signals needed more
regeneration (next slide)
 Scales
 More efficient use of
fiber
 Can travel longer
distances without
OEO
 Higher SNR for all-
optical transmission

DWDM – Standard Optical Wavelengths
f*λ=c
 Standardized by ITU-T for CWDM and DWDM systems

 Standardization is for the lasers only
 The number of λs and the spacing are all design variables – No
standardized DWDM system
 Most used bands
 C band – Conventional band
 L band – Long band
 S band – Short band
 Spacing is usually 100 GHz
or 50 GHz and more recently
25 GHz in DWDM

DWDM – Laser Wavelengths
20nm
Coarse WDM wavelengths
... ....
1270 nm 1290 nm 1310 nm 1330 nm 1530 nm 1550 nm 1570 nm 1590 nm 1610 nm 1670 nm
DWDM
0.8nm
Spacing
Dense WDM wavelengths
0.4nm
Spacing
1527.77nm
1529.16nm
1529.55nm
1529.94nm
1530.33nm
1578.69nm
1.6nm
Spacing Note: In a fiber 128 optical
wavelengths can be sent
simultaneously
DWDM - OTM-n.m Signal (m=1,2,3,12,23,123)
n
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OSC
OTM Overhead Signal (OOS)
 Up to "n" wavelengths carrying traffic, with a grid dependent on bit rate

 1 "out-of-band" Optical Supervisory Channel (OSC) transporting the
OTM Overhead Signal (OOS)
 OTM Overhead Signal transports OTS, OMS, OCh (non-associated)
overhead and General management communications
Optical Elements – Optical Signal Path
Wavelength Wavelength
multiplexor Demultiplexor
λ1
λ1
Drop Add
λ2
λ2
λ44
λ44
Optical Optical
Transmitters One or more of Drop+Add mux Receivers
can be along the WDM
multiplexed optical signal path

Optical Path – Physical Layer
λ1 λ1
Optical Optical
Transmitter Receiver
λ2 λ2
Optical Optical
Receiver Transmitter
Optical Equipment -A Optical Equipment -B
 Optical Transmitter – Laser which can be programmed to transmit the modulated electrical data bits in form
of optical light pulses of a desired wavelength (Higher precision lasers can support finer granularity of
wavelengths). Transmit wavelength of laser is controlled using injection current or by temperature
Optical Receiver – Tunable optical filter which can be programmed to tune to a particular optical light
wavelength and receive the modulated bits and convert to electrical data. Optical pulses received in other
wavelengths are ignored. Tunable wavelength can be adjusted using injection current or by temperature
 Fiber is used in a uni-directional fashion from transmitter to receiver
 This requires Receiver to tune to the particular wavelength as sent by transmitter.
Optical Path – Optical Link Elements

Optical Transmission - Defects
 Optical transmission is not error-free due to

 Impurities in fiber degrading the strength of optical signal
 Loss of light power due to imperfections in the cladding shielding the fiber
 Loss of light power due to fiber layout and arrangement
 Loss of light power due to characteristics of light propagation itself
 Types of Defects
 Attenuation
 Dispersion
 Parametric effects
 Scattering

Optical Transmission - Losses
 Linear – Depends on length of fiber, wavelength used

 Non-Linear – Depends on impurities in the fiber which vary w/o a linear pattern

Attenuation in glass fiber
69
Optical Transmission – Attenuation
 Attenuation of optical fiber is expressed as decibels/Km of fiber

i.e db/km
 Attenuation depends on wavelength and is lower for higher
wavelengths (lower frequencies)
 Attenuation is due to scattering of light, absorption of light and
other light leakage due to bending, splices and connectors
 Attenuation reaches a peak low around 1550nm-1620nm range
(as shown in figure)

Optical Transmission – Raman Amplifier to counter
Attenuation
 Uses a non-linear effect called Stimulated Raman Scattering

 Uses either the embedded fiber as the active medium (distributed Raman amplification),
or a part of the fiber inside a structure (discrete Raman amplification)
 The optical fiber is commonly counter pumped (pumped backwards) with a 600 mW
laser which is most efficient with a wavelength difference of 100 nm (13.2 THz) to the
signal (or the WDM multiplexed wavelengths)
 The photons released from pump wave amplifies all the wavelengths in the WDM
multiplexed signal.
 Raman amplification is independent of fiber characteristics (like dopant) and depends
only on optical light signal and pump wave and the difference in their wavelengths.
 Raman amplification pump lasers can be in forward direction (along the signal) or in the
backward direction (in reverse direction)

Optical Transmission – Placement of Optical Amplifiers

Optical Transmission – Dispersion
Fiber
Digital signal
Emitter Photodetector
Information Information
t Input Output
Input Intensity Output Intensity
² 
Very short
light pulses t t
0 T 0
~2² 
An optical fiber link for transmitting digital information and the effect of
dispersion in the fiber on the output pulses.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

Optical Transmission – Dispersion types
 Modal Dispersion: Different modes travel at

different velocities, exist only in multimodal
conditions
 Waveguide Dispersion: Signal closer to the cladding

travel with a different velocity than the signal in the
core, significant in single mode conditions
 Material Dispersion: Refractive index n is a function

of wavelength, exists in all fibers causes material
dispersion. This dispersion is a function of the
source line width

Optical Tranmission – Modal Dispersion
High order mode Low order mode
Broadened
Cladding light pulse
Light pulse
Intensity Core
Intensity
Axial
Spread, 
t t
0
Schematic illustration of light propagation in a slab dielectric waveguide. Light pulse

entering the waveguide breaks up into various modes which then propagate at different
group velocities down the guide. At the end of the guide, the modes combine to
constitute the output light pulse which is broader than the input light pulse.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap,Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

Optical Transmission – Waveguide Dispersion
Input Cladding
v g ( 1 )
Core Output
Emitter v g ( 2 )
Very short
light pulse
Intensity Intensity Intensity

Spectrum, ² 
Spread, ² 
 t t
1 o 2 0 
All excitation sources are inherently non-monochromatic and emit within a

spectrum, ² , of wavelengths. Waves in the guide with different free space
wavelengths travel at different group veloc ities due to the wavelength dependence
of n1. The waves arrive at the end of the fiber at different times and hence result in
a broadened output pulse.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

Optical Transmission – Chromatic Dispersion
Chromatic Dispersion = Material dispersion

+ Waveguide dispersion
 Material dispersion depends on the material properties and
difficult to alter (Refractive index is dependent on
wavelength, hence optical light of different wavelengths can
travel in different speeds along the fiber)
 Waveguide dispersion can be altered by changing the fiber
refractive index profile
 1300 nm optimized
 Dispersion Shifting (to 1550 nm)
 Dispersion Flattening (from 1300 to 1550 nm)

Optical Transmission – Optical Power Loss - Bending
Field distribution Microbending

Escaping wave
Cladding

Core
  
c 
Sharp bends change the local waveguide geometry that can lead to waves
escaping. The zigzagging ray suddenly finds itself with an incidence
angle  that gives rise to either a transmitted wave, or to a greater
cladding penetration; the field reaches the outside medium and some light
energy is lost.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall) Copyright 2006 Wipro Technologies 78
Optical Transmission – Polarization Mode Dispersion
(PMD)
Each polarization state has a

different velocity  PMD

Optical Transmission – Four Wave Mixing
• Wavelength filters are used to filter out those new signals created
outside of w2-w1 ranges due to FWM
Optical Transmission – Dispersion Compensation Fiber
Dispersion Optimized Fiber:

 Non-zero dispersion shifted fiber (NZ-DSF) 4 ps/nm/km near 1530-1570nm band
 Avoids four-way mixing
Dispersion Compensating Fiber:
 Standard fiber has 17 ps/nm/km; DCF has -100 ps/nm/km
 100 km of standard fiber followed by 17 km of DCF  zero dispersion
 DCF is made of special graded index material to short the pulse widths depending on
wavelengths.
Using FBG for DCF
Longer wavelengths
take more time
Reverse the operation of

dispersive fiber
Shorter wavelengths
take more time Copyright 2006 Wipro Technologies 81
Optical transmission – Mux/Demux
λ1 λ2 λ3 .. λ44
λ1 λ2 λ3 .. λ44
In port 1,
wavelengths
2..44 will cancel
out leaving only
Output wavelength 1 out
Wave on the port Input
Guide Wave Optical
Optical Guide
Multiplexer De-Multiplexer
Internal Optical Paths (a.k.a

waveguides) have their Internal Optical Paths (a.k.a
propagation delays waveguides) have their
adjusted (using electrical propagation delays
inputs or hardwired) as per adjusted (using electrical
λ1 λ2 λ3 λ44 Wavelength range inputs or hardwired) so
supported) to ensure all 44 λ1 λ2 λ3 λ44 that on port x only
input lightwave signals mix wavelength x is allowed.
Input Optical without interference Wavelengths 1..44
Output Optical (excluding x) will have
channels destructive interference
channels and will be filtered..
Optical Transmission – Wavelength Add/Drop using
Fiber-Bragg gratings
λ1, λ2, λ3, λm-1, λ m… λn, λn+1,. λ44. λ1, λ2, λ3, λm-1, λn+1,. λ44. (+)
Grating Pitch =λ m, hence λ m,
λ m, λ m+1, λ m+2, … λn
is reflected in this grating in
Both directions
Optical Optical
TX+RX TX+RX
Fiber Bragg Grating Indexed Fiber
λ λ λ λ m+1, λ m+2, … λn
m+1, λ m+2, … λnFiber with Bragg Gratings
m, (-) m,
-Optical pulses can travel in both directions inside the grated fiber
Drop of - A specific grating is designed to reflect back a specific wavelength Add of

(the grating pitch determines the wavelength reflected back)
wavelengths - The highest and lowest grating pitches determine the highest and
wavelengths
lowest wavelengths that can be filtered. The overall length of fiber
and hence each grating pitch can be extended using electric current –
Providing a different range of wavelengths that will be filtered.
- By adjusting the grating pitch, the wavelength range to be
filtered(add/drop) can be adjusted accordingly

OADM – Optical Add/Drop Multiplexor
Terminal
OADM

Optical Wireline Transmission - Conclusion
 We have seen the principles of working of a Sonet (optical network)
 We have seen carrier-class definitions and how that is achieved
 We have seen digital wrapper for Sonet (OTN)
 We have seen principles of optical transmission, reception
 We have seen optical transmission defects and means to overcome those
 We have seen Optical Add-Drop and how that is achieved.

CHAPTER 8 Optical Networks and Technologies

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CHAPTER 8 Optical Networks and Technologies

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CHAPTER 8 Optical Networks and Technologies

Copyright 2006 Wipro Technologies 1

 The light rays launched into the fiber at different angles of

 Dispersion depends on the type of fiber and on the length

 They are broadly classified as

•SYNC – Used for frame synchronization – only in asynchronous PDH

Transmission over OC-N OH: Overhead

Copyright 2006 Wipro Technologies 13

Bit / 100 pulses

Must stuff a dummy pulse into stream B prior to multiplexing

 During multiplexing, extra bits are added (bit-stuffing) to account

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Satellite Fed GPS

BITS – Building Integrated Timing Supply

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Client Side Network Element Network Side

Network to Client Traffic

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Drop 1 Network Ports

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Note: Slides 180,181 can be substituted for this slide

• Section Termination (STE) - Span between regens

 Combine lower rate signals

 Lower rate signals can be

 Switch or cross-connect various

• Each of these elements in a Wireline Digital Network is called a

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Ring Hub (Digital Cross-connect Systems)

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Line Rate SONET Optical SDH

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 7 Virtual Tributary Groups each with 12 columns per STS-1

 A VT group can contain only one size of VTs

 Wireline network supports following data types in it’s payload

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Defining carrier grade

To ensure protection switching within 50ms, Wireline Networks have a

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Automatic Protection Switching

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Extra – Traffic Flow

Span Failure Protection

Different colors indicate timeslots for

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4-fiber BLSR Span Switch due to working fiber break on a section

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 Fault Management (3)

Wireline Digital Transport Network

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 External Network Management System Server issues the

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