Unit 1 : Network Fundamentals

1. Data Communication
2. Components
3. Basic Concepts of Network

Prepared by - G.Balamurugan MIT

Campus

Reference : Behrouz.A. Forouzan, Data Communication And Networking, 4th Edition, Tata
McGraw Hill, 2007. 1
 Data Communication
• The term telecommunication means communication at a distance.
The word data refers to information presented in whatever form is
agreed upon by the parties creating and using the data

• Data communications are the exchange of data between two

devices via some form of transmission medium such as a wire
cable.

• For data communications to occur, the communicating devices

must be part of a communication system made up of a
combination of hardware and software

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 Fundamental Characteristics
The effectiveness of data communication system depends on 4 fundamental
characteristics.
• Delivery
Deliver data to the correct destination
Intended device or user
• Accuracy
Deliver the data accurately
Altered in transmission and left uncorrected
• Timeliness
Deliver data in a timely manner
Ex: Real-time transmission (video and audio) – without delay.
• Jitter
Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time.
Uneven delay in the delivery of audio or video packets

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 Data Communication System Components

• Message - text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video

• Sender – computer, workstation, telephone handset, video camera
• Receiver - computer, workstation, telephone handset, TV
• Transmission Medium - twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, radio
waves
• Protocol - set of rules that govern data communications
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 Data Representation
• Text - text is represented as a bit pattern
Different sets of bit patterns - represent text symbols.
Each set is called a code
• Numbers
• Images
• Audio
• Video

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 Basic Concepts
1. Line Configuration
2. Topology
3. Transmission Mode
4. Categories of Networks
5. Internetworks

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 1. Line Configuration

• The way two or more communication devices attach to a link.

– Point to point : Dedicated link between two devices.
– Multipoint: Share a single link.

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1.A Point-to-Point Line Configuration

Dedicated link
Reserved channel
Ex: Remote control

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 1B. Multipoint Line Configuration

• Multipoint / Multidrop
• More than two specific devices share a single link.
• Capacity of the channel is shared.
• Spatial Sharing : Several devices can share the link simultaneously
• Time shared line : Users take turns using the link

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 2. Topology
• Topology defines the physical or logical arrangements of links in a
network.

• Relative status of devices to the link

– Peer-to-peer : Device share the link equally
– Primary- secondary : One device controls traffic and other transmit through it.

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 2A. Mesh Topology

• Every device has a

dedicated link to every
other device.
• Physical channel:
n(n-1)/2 to link n devices.
• I/O Port: (n-1)

Disadvantage:
Advantage:
Amount of cabling
Elimination of traffic problems –
Installation and
Dedicated link
reconfiguration are difficult
Robust
Hardware required –
Privacy or security.
expensive.
Fault identification and isolation is easy 11
 Problem 1
• The ECE department has a fully connected mesh network
consisting of eight devices. Calculate the total number of cable
links needed and the number of ports for each device.

• Number of links : n(n-1)/2 = 8(8-1)/2 = 28

• Number of IO ports = n-1 = 7

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 2B. Star Topology
• Every node is connected
through a central device.
• Devices are not directly linked
with each other.
• Controller acts as an exchanger.

Advantage Disadvantage
• Less expensive than mesh. • More cabling is required
• Easy to install and than other topologies ( such
reconfigure. as ring or bus ).
• Robustness 13
 2C. Bus Topology

• Multipoint – one long cable acts as a backbone to link all devices

• Drop line and Tap.
• Advantage: Ease of installation since less cabling is required.
• Disadvantage:
– difficult in reconfiguration and fault isolation
– Signal reflection at the taps can cause degradation in quality.
– If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the network
decreases.
– Cables fails then whole network fails. 14
Ethernet Address
 2B. Ring Topology

• Each node is connected to the two nearest nodes so the entire

network forms a circle.
• Data only travels in one direction on a Ring - Unidirectional
traffic.
• Recipients check NIC address

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 2B. Ring Topology
(Check NIC address)
Advantage:
Easy to install and reconfigure. Data
To add or delete a device Receiver
requires moving only two
connections.
Fault isolation is easy. (Check NIC address)

Data

Disadvantage:
A break in the ring – disable entire
network. ( Solution dual ring)

Sender

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 Problem
• The Electronics department has a fully connected ring network
consisting of eight devices. Calculate the total number of cable
links needed and the number of ports for each device.

• Number of links : n = 8
• Number of IO ports = 2

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 Identify the topology

A hybrid topology: a star backbone with three bus networks

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 Problem
1. For each of the following four networks, discuss the consequences if a
connection fails:
a.Five devices arranged in a mesh topology
b.Five devices arranged in a star topology
c.Five devices arranged in a bus topology
d.Five devices arranged in a ring topology

2. How many cables are needed? How many ports are needed for each
device?

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 3. Transmission Mode
Term transmission mode is used to define the direction of signal flow between
two linked devices.

Example :: Telephone
Example Keyboard - input only
Walkie-talkies
Monitor – output only 21
 
4. Categories of Network

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 4A. Local Area Network

• A LAN is a data communication system within a building, campus or

between near by buildings.
• Data rate – 4 to 16 Mbps. Today speed increased up to 100Mbps.
• Resource – Hardware / Software / Data.
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 4B. Metropolitan Area Network

• A metropolitan area network is designed to extend over an entire

city.
• Example : Cable television network
• A MAN may be wholly owned or operated by a private company.
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4C. Wide Area Network

• Provides a long distance

transmission.
• Operate over a large
geographic area
• WAN is wholly owned
by a single company

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 5. Internetwork
(internet)
• When two or more networks are connected, they become
internetwork or internet.

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 Network Criteria
• A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by
communication links.

• Performance of the network depends on number of users, type of

transmission medium, and the capabilities of the connected h/w and the
efficiency of the s/w.
Transit time : the amount of time required for a message to travel from one
device to another.
Response time: elapsed time between an inquiry and a response
Networking metric : throughput and delay.

• Reliability is measured by frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to

recover from the failure.

• Security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access and viruses.
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 Protocols
• In computer networks, communication occurs between entities in
different systems.
• Entity is anything capable of sending or receiving information
• For communication to occur, the entities must agree on a protocol.

• A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications.

• Key elements of a protocol are
• Syntax : Refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the
order in which they are presented.
• Semantics: Refers to the meaning of each section of bits
• Timing: Refers to two characteristics: when data should be sent and
how fast they can be sent.

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 Standards
• Standards are essential in creating and maintaining an open and
competitive market for equipment manufacturers.
• Standards provide guidelines to manufacturers, vendors, government
agencies, and other service providers.

• Data communication standards fall into two categories:

• De facto (meaning "by fact" or "by convention")
– Standards that have not been approved by an organized body but have been
adopted as standards through widespread
• De jure (meaning "by law" or "by regulation").
– Standards that have been legislated by an officially recognized body

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 Standards Organizations
• International Telecommunication Union-Telecommunication
Standards Sector (ITU-T)
– committee was devoted to the research and establishment of standards for
telecommunications in general and for phone and data systems
• Electronic Industries Association (EIA)
– Devoted to the promotion of electronics manufacturing concerns
– EIA has made significant contributions by defining physical connection
interfaces and electronic signaling specifications for data communication.
• Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
– Largest professional engineering society
– it aims to advance theory, creativity, and product quality in the fields of
electrical engineering, electronics, and radio
• International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
– covers all aspects of network communications (1947)

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1. Frequency of failure and network recovery time after a failure are
measures of the _______ of a network Reliability
2. Which topology requires a multipoint connection?
(a) Mesh (b) Star (c) Ring (d) Bus Bus
3. Communication between a computer and a keyboard involves
______________ transmission. Simplex
4. A television broadcast is an example of _______ transmission. Simplex
5. A _________
Point - Point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices.
6. In a Multi-
________
Point connection, more than two devices can share a single link.
7. In _______ transmission, the channel capacity is shared by both
communicating devices at all times. Full duplex
8. In a ______ connection, two and only two devices are connected by a
dedicated link. Point - Point
9. Topology
________ refers to the physical or logical arrangement of a network.
10. ________ is a collection of many separate networks. An internet

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 Unit 1 : OSI Model

1. Function of the OSI Layers

2. Summary

Reference : Behrouz.A. Forouzan, Data Communication And Networking, 4th Edition, Tata
McGraw Hill, 2007.
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 Layered Tasks
• Two friends communicate through postal mail.
• Process of sending a letter to a friend would be complex if there
were no services available from post office.

Deliver

Collects

Sort

Services: Each layer at the sending site uses the services of the layer immediately below it.
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 OSI Model
• ISO - Established in 1947
• Open Systems Interconnection Model – 1970
• A set of protocols that allows any two different systems to
communicate regardless of their architecture.
• Purpose of OSI – To communicate two different systems
without changing hardware and software.
• OSI is not a protocol.
• OSI – 7 layers.
• Layer – responsible for different part of overall process of
moving data.
• Layers : Physical, Data link, Network, Transport, Session,
Presentation, Application
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 Seven layers of the OSI model

“ Please
“All Do Seem
People Not Touch Steve’s
To Need DataPet Alligator””
Processing 35
 1. Physical Layer
• Deals with mechanical and electrical specification of the
interface and transmission medium.

The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits from one
hop (node) to the next.

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 Responsibilities of Physical layer
• Physical characteristics of interfaces and media:
Defines characteristics of the interface
Defines type of medium
• Representation of bits
Physical layer data consist of stream of bits
Bits must be encoded into signals
Defines type of encoding
• Data rate
Transmission rate – Defines duration of bits

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 Responsibilities of Physical layer
• Synchronization of bits
Sender and receiver clock must be synchronised.
S & R must to use same bit rate.
• Line configuration
Connection of devices to the medium
Point to point, Multi point configuration
• Physical topology
Topology defines the physical or logical arrangements of links in
a network. Mesh, star, ring and bus topology.
• Transmission mode
Direction of transmission between two devices. Simplex, Half
duplex, Full duplex.
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 2. Data link Layer
• Responsible for delivering data units from one node to another
node without errors.

The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop (node) to
the next. 39
 Responsibilities of Data link layer
• Framing
Divides the stream of bits into manageable data units.
• Physical addressing
To distribute to different system – physical address
• Flow control
Rate at which data are absorbed by the receiver is less than rate
produced in the sender.
To prevent overpower the receiver
• Error control
Adds reliability to the physical layer – mechanisms to detect and
retransmit damaged or lost frames.
Error control achieved through a trailer added at the end of frame.
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 Responsibilities of Data link layer
• Access control
Two or more devices are connected to same link
Data link protocol determine which device has control over
the link at any given time.

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 Responsibilities of Data link layer
The data link layer is responsible for moving
frames from one hop (node) to the next.

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 3. Network Layer
Network layer is responsible for source to destination delivery of a
packet across multiple networks.

• Logical addressing
Physical address - Handles addressing problem locally
When packet pass network boundary – need another address
Network layer adds a header to the packet.

• Routing
Independent networks are connected together to create an
internetwork.
Interconnecting devices – route the packet
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44
 3. Network Layer
The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual
packets from the source host to the destination host.

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3. Network Layer

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 4. Transport Layer
• The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message from
one process to another.
• Process is an application program running on a host

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 Responsibilities of Transport layer
• Service-point addressing
– Computer run several programs at the same time
– Source to destination delivery - delivery not only from one computer
to next but also from a specific process on one computer to a specific
process
– Header contain port address
– Network layer: to correct computer Transport layer: to correct process

• Segmentation and reassembly

– A message is divided into transmittable segments, with each segment
containing a sequence number.
– reassemble the message correctly
– identify and replace packets that were lost
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 Responsibilities of Transport layer
• Connection control
– The transport layer can be either connectionless or connection
oriented
– Connectionless: Each segment as an independent packets and
delivers it.
– Connection Oriented: Makes a connection first before delivering,
after all data transferred connection is terminated

• Flow control
– Like data link layer, transport layer is responsible for flow control

• Error control
– Like data link layer, transport layer is responsible for error control
– Error correction is achieved through retransmission. 49
 Transport Layer
• The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message
from one process to another.
• Process is an application program running on a host

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 5. Session Layer
• The services provided by the first three layers are not sufficient for
some processes
• The session layer is responsible for dialog
control and synchronization.
• Session layer is network dialog controller – establishes, maintains
and synchronizes the interaction between communicating systems.

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 Responsibilities of Session layer
• Dialog control
– Allows the communication between two processes to take place
in either half-duplex or full-duplex mode

• Synchronization
– a process to add checkpoints, or synchronization points, to a
stream of data.
– Example : sending a file of 2000 pages
insert checkpoints after every 100 pages
acknowledged independently by receiver

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 6. Presentation Layer
• The presentation layer is responsible for translation, compression,
and encryption.
• The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of
the information exchanged between two systems.
• Syntax – format of data blocks.
• Semantics – Refers to the meaning of each section of bits

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 Responsibilities of Presentation layer
• Translation:
– Sender changes the information from its sender dependent
format in to common format.
– Receiver changes common format to receiver dependent format.
• Encryption:
– To carry sensitive information - privacy.
– sender transforms the original information to another form
– Receiver transforms the message back to its original form
• Compression:
– reduces the number of bits to be transmitted.
– multimedia such as audio, and video

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55
 7. Application Layer
• Enables the user, whether human or software, to access the network.
• User interfaces and support for services – email, remote file access
etc.

The application layer is responsible for providing services to the user. 56

 Responsibilities of Application layer
• Network virtual terminal
– Software version of a physical terminal
– Allows user to log on to remote computer

• File transfer, access, and management

– user to access files in a remote computer,
– To retrieve files from a remote computer
– To manage or control files in a remote computer

• Mail services
– E-mail forwarding and storage

• Directory services
– Distributed database sources and access for global information for object and services

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 An Exchange Using the OSI Model

Encapsulation: Data portion of a packet at level N-1 carries the whole packet from level N.
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 The interaction between layers in the OSI model

Interface: Each interface defines the information and services a layer must provide for
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the layer above it.
Summary

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Network Interface Card
(NIC)
• Ethernet card and network adapter
• RJ-45 connector
• RJ registered jack - mechanical
interface and wiring scheme.

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• In the OSI model, headers are added to the data packet at every layer
except _______. layer 1
• In a peer-to-peer process, layer 4 on machine A communicates with layer
_______ on machine B. 4
• The _______ layer ensures end-to-end reliable data transmission. transport
• The _______ layer ensures reliable transmission on a single link. physical
• The OSI _______ layer is implemented mainly by hardware. physical
• The OSI _______ layer is implemented mainly by software.
• The _______ layer defines the type of encoding to be used. physical
• The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the network
layer into data units called _______. frames
• The _______ layer is responsible for regulating the flow of data to prevent
the receiver from being overwhelmed with data. data link
• The _______ layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a
packet, possibly across multiple networks. Network

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 Unit 1 : TCP/IP Protocol

1. TCP/IP Protocol Layers

2. Addressing
3. Comparison of OSI and TCP/IP
Reference : Behrouz.A. Forouzan, Data Communication And Networking, 4th Edition, Tata
McGraw Hill, 2007.
63
 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly match those in the
OSI model.
The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as having four layers: host-
to-network, internet, transport, and application.

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 Overview of TCP/IP
• TCP/IP - Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol was
developed by Department of Defence's Advance Research Project Agency
(ARPA, later DARPA) as a part of a research project of network
interconnection to connect remote machines.

• The features that stood out during the research, which led to making the
TCP/IP reference model were:
– Support for a flexible architecture. Adding more machines to a network
was easy.
– The network was robust, and connections remained intact until the
source and destination machines were functioning.

• The overall idea was to allow one application on one computer to talk
to(send data packets) another application running on different computer.

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 TCP/IP Layers
Layer 1: Host-to-network Layer
• Lowest layer of the all.
• Protocol is used to connect to the host, so that the packets can be sent over it.
• Varies from host to host and network to network.

Layer 2: Internet layer

• It is the layer which holds the whole architecture together.
• It helps the packet to travel independently to the destination.
• Core Protocols – IP, ARP, ICMP, IGMP
– Internet Protocol (IP) : routable protocol responsible for addressing, routing and fragmentation
and reassembly of packets.
– Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) : To find physical address ( When IP is known)
– Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) :To find IP address (physical address known)
– Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) : Send notification of datagram problems back to the
sender.
– Internet Group Message Protocol (IGMP) : Simultaneous transmission of a message to a group
of recipients. 66
 TCP/IP Layers
Layer 3: Transport Layer
• It decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or single path.
• Functions such as multiplexing, segmenting or splitting on the data is done by
transport layer.
• Transport layer adds header information to the data.
• Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units so that they are
handled more efficiently by the network layer.
• Transport layer also arrange the packets to be sent, in sequence.

• Two Protocols : TCP and UDP

• IP – host to host protocol
• Transport – delivery of a message from process to process.

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 TCP/IP Layers
Layer 4: Application Layer
• Application layer of TCP/IP – Combination of Session, Presentation and
application layer.

• The TCP/IP specifications described a lot of applications that were at the top of
the protocol stack. Some of them were TELNET, FTP, SMTP, DNS etc.
– TELNET is a two-way communication protocol which allows connecting to a remote machine
and run applications on it.
– FTP(File Transfer Protocol) is a protocol, that allows File transfer among computer users
connected over a network. It is reliable, simple and efficient.
– SMTP (Simple Mail Transport Protocol) is a protocol, which is used to transport electronic mail
between a source and destination, directed via a route.
– DNS (Domain Name Server) resolves an IP address into a textual address for Hosts connected
over a network.

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 Merits and Demerits of TCP/IP
Merits of TCP/IP model
• It operated independently.
• It is scalable.
• Client/server architecture.
• Supports a number of routing protocols.
• Can be used to establish a connection between two computers.
Demerits of TCP/IP
• In this, the transport layer does not guarantee delivery of packets.
• The model cannot be used in any other application.
• Replacing protocol is not easy.
• It has not clearly separated its services, interfaces and protocols.

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 Comparison of OSI and TCP/IP
S.No OSI TCP/IP
1 7 Layers 4 layers
2 OSI is a reference model around which TCP/IP is a way implementation of
the network are built. Generally it is used OSI model.
a s guidance tool.
3 OSI model defines services, interfaces In TCP/IP services, interface and
and protocols very clearly and make clear protocols are not clearly separated.
distinction between them.
4 OSI is a generic protocol independent TCP/IP is based on standard protocols
standard. around with the internet has
developed.
5 It is possible to fit the protocols into the TCP/IP does not fit any protocol.
model. It is easy to replace the protocol Replacing the protocol is not easy.
as the technology changes.

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Addressing

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Relationship of layers and addresses in
TCP/IP

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 1. Physical address
• Physical address ( Link address) - Address of a node.
• Size and format of the address vary depending on the network.
• Ethernet – 6byte address (48bit) – imprinted on NIC.
• LocalTalk (Apple) – 1byte – dynamic address that changes
each time the station comes up.

07:01:02:01:2C:4B
A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address.
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 2. Logical Address
• Logical address are necessary
for universal communications
that are independent of
physical network.
• Universal addressing required
in which host can be identified
uniquely.
• Currently 32 bit IP address.

The physical addresses will change

from hop to hop,
but the logical addresses usually
remain the same.
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 3. Port Address
• Computers are devices that can
run multiple process at same
time.
• For example: Computer A can
communicate with computer C
by using TelNet and at same
time Computer A communicates
with computer B by using FTP.
• For these process to receive data
simultaneously – to label
different process – port address.
• Port address - 16 bits.

0753 The physical addresses change from hop to hop,

but the logical and port addresses usually remain
A 16-bit port address represented the same.
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 4. Specific Address
• User friendly addresses that are designed for specific address.
• Example : Email address and Universal Resource Locator
(URL) (www.mhhe.com).

• Email address – defines recipient address.

• URL – find a document on WWW.

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 NIC
• Network Interface Card
• Ethernet card and network adapter
• RJ-45 connector

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• RJ11 – 1P1C
• RJ25
• 6P6C
• For three telephone
lines

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 Problems
• Five computers are connected to a common cable in a
multipoint configuration. The cable can transfer only 100,000
bits per second. If all computers have data to send, what is the
average data rate for each computer?

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