CONTROLLER DESIGN

Prof. John T. Agee

 Controller
• Generally speaking, a controller is a network
or an algorithm that manipulates the error
signal to enhance the performance of a
control system
 Question

• How do we measure the performance of a

control system?

• When does the performance of a system need

improvement?
• Measurement of Performance requires the
Performance Indices: Time domain, Frequency
domain
 STABILITY ANALYSIS
• ABSOLUTE STABILITY

• RELATIVE STABILITY
 ..
• How is performance measured when the
system is of an order higher than the second
order?

• USE A DOMINANT POLE-PAIR & LOCATE THE

REMAINING POLES AS FAR AWAY FROM THE
TWO DORMINANT ONES, AS POSSIBLE
 INDICES OF PERFORMANCE IN THE
FREQUENCY DOMAIN
• Resonant Peak
• Bandwidth
• Phase margin
• Gain margin
OTHER INDICES OF PERFORMANCE:
STEADY STATE
Steady State Error Versus error
Constants
Error Constant Table
MAIN CONTROLLER CONFIGURATIONS
 CONTROLLERS/CONTROL STRATEGIES
• P- proportional control: the output of the
controller is simply a gain multiplying the error

• I-Integral Control: error is integrated

• D-Derivative Control: error is differentiated

 CONTROLLERS/CONTROL STRATEGIES
• Lead Control: a more practical version of the
derivative control action
• Lag Control: a more practical version of
integral control action
• Lead-lag or lag-lead: combines lead and lag
actions
• PI, PD, PID: combines P&I, P&D or P,I&D
Design of Proportional Controllers
 P DESIGN USING THE ROOTS LOCUS
METHOD
• A unity feedback system with the forward

K
G (s) 
transfer function ( s  1)( s  2)( s  10)

operates with a damping factor of 0.174. Design

a proportional controller for the system such
that the steady state error is reduced by a factor
of ten.
 Root Locus
25
0.174

• K=161
20

15

10
Imaginary Axis (seconds-1)

-5

-10

-15

-20
0.174
-25
-35 -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
-1
Real Axis (seconds )
 ..
161
KP   8.05
1* 2 *10
1 1
ess    0.1105
1  K P 1  8.05

For a ten-fold reduction in the steady-state

error: ess=0.05551
1
 0.0555 
For the new system gain: e
1  K new
ssnew
P

1
K Pnew   1  17.
0.0555
K  1* 2 *10 *17  340
Lets check again on the rlocus plot
Root Locus
25
0.174
20
System: G
Gain: 347
15 Pole: -0.113 + 5.36i
Damping: 0.0211
10 Overshoot (%): 93.6
Imaginary Axis (seconds-1)

Frequency (rad/s): 5.36

5

-5

-10

-15

-20
0.174
-25
-35 -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
-1
Real Axis (seconds )
 ..
Increasing the gain:
• Reduces the steady state error
• Speeds-up the system
• Reduces damping

• Best for over-damped systems

• Reduce the stability margins when the system
has low damping
 Bode Diagram
50
System: G1
Frequency (rad/s): 51.4
0
Magnitude (dB) Magnitude (dB): -37.2

-50

-100

-150

-200
-90

-135
Phase (deg)

-180
System: G1
-225 Frequency (rad/s): 61.1
Phase (deg): -181

-270
0 1 2 3 4
10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/s)
INTEGRAL CONTROL
DERIVATIVE CONTROL
PI Design
CONTROLLER DESIGN VIA FREQUENCY-
BASED METHOD

• P, PI, PD, PID

• FOCUS ON P(gain adjustment), LAG AND LEAD

COMPENSATION
 PHASE LAG AND PHASE LEAD

Bode Diagram Bode Diagram

0 15
Magnitude (dB)

Magnitude (dB)
-5 10

-10 5

-15 0
40 0

30 -10
Phase (deg)

Phase (deg)
20 -20

10 -30

0 -40
-1 0 1 2 -1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/s) Frequency (rad/s)

s2
G1 ( s )  s 8
s 8 G2 ( s ) 
s2
 THE ZEIGLER-NICHOLS TUNING
METHOD
• Can lead to the direct setting of P, PI, PD or
PID gains

• May be used even when the model of the plat

is not known.
 ..
• Divided into two methods:

• The Zeigler-Nichols first or open-loop method

• The Zeigler-Nichols second or closed-loop

method.
 THE Zeigler-Nichols First Method
• This method applies if the step-response of
the system exhibits an s-shaped behaviour

• These s-shaped step response may be

determined experimentally if the model is not
known or via dynamic simulations if the model
is known.
 PROCEDURE
• Consider the open loop system
• Excite it with a step input. Avoid driving the
system into saturation
• Record the s-shaped curve using and
oscilloscope or any other recording device
• Verify the point of maximum gradient or the
point of inflexion. Draw a line that cuts the
curve at the point of inflexion, cutting also the
time-axis
…
 ..
• Obtain the L,T and K parameters
• The method says that the unknown system has
a transfer function which could be
approximated by:  Ls
C ( s ) Ke

U ( s ) Ts  1
1 Ki
GC ( s )  K P (1   Td s )  1   Kd s
• PID: Ti s s
K i  K P / Ti , K d  K PTd
..First Method: Controller Tuning

Type of KP Ti Td
Controller
P T/L ∞ 0
PI 0.9T/L L/0.3 0
PID 1.2T/L 2L 0.5L
 CLOSED LOOP METHOD
• Consider an open-loop transfer function G (s) 
N (s)
D( s)

• Introduce a gain K to have

KN ( s )
G1 ( s ) 
D( s)
• and close the loop:
KN ( s )
T (s) 
KN ( s )  D( s )

• Increase K until the on-set of sustained

oscillations:
Second Method: Controller Tuning

Controller 𝑲𝒑 𝑻𝒊 𝑻𝒅

P 0.5𝐾𝑢 − −

PI 0.45𝐾𝑢 𝑇𝑢 /1.2 −

PD 0.8𝐾𝑢 − 𝑇𝑢 /8

PID (Classic) 0.6𝐾𝑢 𝑇𝑢 /2 𝑇𝑢 /8

PID (NO) 0.2𝐾𝑢 𝑇𝑢 /2 𝑇𝑢 /8

PID (SO) 0.33𝐾𝑢 𝑇𝑢 /2 𝑇𝑢 /3

 ..
• Note the smallest gain for which sustained
oscillations appear. This is called the ultimate
gain Ku

• Record the ultimate frequency and the

ultimate period Tu, corresponding to the
ultimate gain.
 Example: Obtain the PID controller
Parameters
• System G (s) 
1
s ( s  1)( s  5)

• Closed-loop:
C ( s) KP

R( s) s( s  1)( s  5)  K P

Q ( s )  s 3  6 s 2  5s  K P
 ..
• Routh-Hurwitz Table:
s3 1 5
s2 6 KP
s1 (30-KP)/6
s0 KP

• Ku=30
2
6 s  30  0  u  5 ; Tu 
2

• Even polynomial: 5
 …

1
Gc ( s )  K P (1   Td s );
Ti s
K P  0.6 K u  18, Ti  Tu / 2  1.405, Td  Tu / 4  0.35124
1 s  1.4235 2
 Gc ( s )  18(1   0.35124s )  6.3223( )
1.405s s