Chapter 2: Elastic Behavior

- General observation

Yield
Tensile
strength
strength
Stress

Stress
Metals Ceramics

Strain Strain

• Hook’s law:
  E E: Young’s modulus or modulus of elasticity
  G G: shear modulus or modulus of rigidity
• Poisson’s ratio:
x
v
z

ex 
1
E
 
 x  v( y   z )
x 0 0
 0 y 0
1
E

e y   y  v( x   z ) 
0 0 z
1

ez   z  v( x   y )
E

Isotropic materials only

E

2(1  v)
• Volume change:

V (l1  l 1)(l2  l 2 )(l3  l 3 )  l1l2l3


V l1l2l3
(l1l2l3  l2l3l 1l1l3l 2 l1l2l 3 l1l2l 3 l2l1l 3 l3l1l 2 l1l2l 3 )  l1l2l3

l1l2l3
l2l3l 1l1l3l 2 l1l2l 3

l1l2l3
l 1 l 2 l 3
  
l1 l2 l3
 1   2   3

Isotropic material under a hydrostatic tension or compression

1 
1
  v(   )   1  2v
E E
 V 3 
 2    v(   )  1  2v
1  1   2   3  (1  2v) 
E E V E K

 3    v(   )  1  2v
1
E E
Bulk modulus
- The atomic view of Young’s modulus

Bonding energy

Interatomic Forces

dU
F
dr

For small displacements

F  r  r0 
 dF d 2U
Stiffness, S   2
dr dr

When stretching is small, S is a constant

Spring Constant of the Bond

 d 2U 
S0   2 
 dr 
  r  r0

F  S0 r  r0 
   NS0 r  r0 

No. of bonds/area, N  1/ r02

r  r0
n 
r0

  S0 
E  
 n  r0 

• The modulus is determined by the strength of the atomic bond, and bond density

• E is also a function of crystalline direction (for polycrystalline ceramics, the E is an average)

 Many properties of materials
and external conditions have
a directional dependence

- What is a tensor
Matrix representation that can relate the directionality of
either material properties: property tensors ( e.g., conductivity, elasticity)
or states of particular material: condition tensors (e.g., stress, strain)
- Rank of tensors
• Zero-rank tensor: scalar quantity; independence of direction;
e.g., temperature, density
• First-rank tensor (3 components) : a vector, such as force; T = (T1, T2, T3)
• Second-rank tensor (9 components) :
a tensor that relates two vector quantities
T11 T12 T13
T  Tij  T21 T22 T23
T31 T32 T33

• Fourth-rank tensor (81 components):

a tensor that relates two second-rank tensors.
Stress tensors
x3
 11  12  13 33
• General form    21  22  23 23
13 32
 31  32  33
31
22
21  x2
12
11

x1
 11 0 0
• Simple tension/compression in x-direction  0 0 0
0 0 0

0  21 0
• Pure shear in the z-plane    12 0 0
0 0 0
• Hydrostatic pressure
P 0 0
0 P 0
0 0 P

• By adding a hydrostatic pressure and any three pure shear stresses,

any stress state can be reproduced, meaning any stress state
can be split into two components:
hydrostatic and deformation shear (deviatoric stress)
( 11   22   33 )
Hydrostatic component: m 
3
2     33
 d 1   11   m  11 22
3
2    
Deviatoric stress:  d 2   22   m  22 11 33
3
2   22   11
 d 3   33   m  33
3
 d1   d 2   d 3  0
  x   y   x   y 
 x  xy   2 0    xy 
   2

 xy y   x  y    x   y 
0  xy 
 2   2 
• Determine principal stresses

Stress tensor is symmetric tensor

 11  12  13  11  12  13
   21  22  23    12  22  23
 31  32  33  13  23  33

rotation
x3
33
s1 0 0
13 23  0 s2 0
32
0 0 s3
31
22
21  x2
12 s1, s2, and s3 are principal stresses,
11
(s1 > s2 > s3)

x1 The directions are called principal directions

The principal stresses can be obtained by solving following cubic equation

s 3  I1 s 2  I 2 s  I 3  0

and I1   11   22   33
I 2   122   23
2
  132   11 22   22 33   33 11
I 3   11 22 33  2 12 23 13   11 23
2
  22 132   33 122

Example 2.2.

6.66 6.24 0 I1   11   22  5
  6.24  1.66 0 I 2   122   11 22  50
0 0 0 I3  0

s 3  5s 2  50s  0
s ( s 2  5s  50)  0
s1  10; s2  0, s3  5
 10  3 4
  3 5 2
4 2 7

I1   11   22   33  22
I 2   122   23
2
  132   11 22   22 33   33 11  126
I 3   11 22 33  2 12 23 13   11 23
2
  22 132   33 122  119

s 3  22s 2  126s  119  0

s1  13; s2  7.8; s3  1.2
(the axes of the system that gives principal stresses called principal axes)
Principal shear stresses
the shear stresses in the planes that bisect the principal axes
are the highest, they have values

s1  s3
2 
2
s s
3  1 2
2
s s
1  2 3
2
The s2 is the maximum shear stress.
Stress invariants

I1   11   22   33
I 2   122   23
2
  132   11 22   22 33   33 11
I 3   11 22 33  2 12 23 13   11 23
2
  22 132   33 122

I1, I2, and I3 are constants for a given state of stress,

and independent of system rotation.

I1  s1  s2  s3
I 2  ( s1s2  s2 s3  s3 s1 )
I 3  s1s 2 s3
• Strain tensors
Non-rotational strain
1 1
e11 (e12  e21 ) (e13  e31 )
11 12 13 2 2
1 1
 ij   21  22  23  (e21  e12 ) e22 (e23  e32 )
2 2
 31  32  33 1 1
(e31  e13 ) (e32  e23 ) e33
2 2

 ij   ji symmetric matrix

The volume strain (also called dilatant strain), which is the change
in volume when the strains are small, is defined as
  11   22   33

Obviously, the change in volume (or volume strain) should be the

same for any coordinate system (independent of rotation)
Principal strains

11 12 13 11 12 13 1 0 0

 ij   21  22  23  ij  12  22  23  ij  0  2 0
 31  32  33 13  23  33 0 0 3

The method to calculate the principal strains is

the same as that for calculating principal stresses

Strain invariants
Similar to stress, strain also has strain invariants
that are independent of system rotation

I1'   1   2   3
I 2'  ( 1 2   2 3   3 1 )
I 3'   1 2 3
- Elasticity
• Specification of the elasticity tensor
When material shows linear elastic response, its stress and strain can
be related (Hooke’s law)
  C
or   S
C is called stiffness (MPa); and S is called compliance (MPa-1)

Since strain and stress are second-rank tensor, C and S are

fourth-rank tensor and have 81 components for each:

 ij  Cijkl kl
or  ij  Sijkl kl
11  S11kl kl  S1111 11  S1112 12  S1113 13  S1121 21  S1122 22
 S1123 23  S1131 31  S1132 32  S1133 33

 11  C11kl  kl  C111111  C111212  C111313  C1121 21  C1122 22

 C1123 23  C1131 31  C1132 32  C1133 33
For the condition that the body in question is not moving, the stress and
strain tensors are symmetric
 ij   ji
and  ij   ji

 ij  Cijkl kl
Cijkl  C jikl
 ji  C jikl kl
 ij  Cijkl kl
 ij  Cijlk lk Cijkl  Cijlk

 ji  C jikl kl
 ij  Cijlk lk C jikl  Cijlk

Cijkl  C jikl  Cijlk  C jilk

Matrix notation

1
2
3
4
5
6

1
2
3
4
33
5
6
 4  2 23 ;  5  213 ;  6  212
The stiffness and compliance can be expressed as 6x6 matrices:

 1 C11 C12 C13 C14 C15 C16 1

 2 C21 C22 C23 C24 C25 C26 2
 3 C31 C32 C33 C34 C35 C36 3

 4 C41 C42 C43 C44 C45 C46 4
 5 C51 C52 C53 C54 C55 C56 5
 6 C61 C62 C63 C64 C65 C66 6

1 S11 S12 S13 S14 S15 S16 1

 2 S 21 S 22 S 23 S 24 S 25 S 26 2
 3 S31 S32 S33 S34 S35 S36 3

 4 S 41 S 42 S 43 S 44 S 45 S 46 4
 5 S51 S52 S53 S54 S55 S56 5
 6 S61 S 62 S 63 S 64 S 65 S 66 6
 3 3
 11  S11lk lk   S11lk lk
l 1 k 1

 S1111 11  S1112 12  S1113 13  S1121 21  S1122 22

 S1123 23  S1131 31  S1132 32  S1133 33
 S1111 1  S1112 6  S1113 5  S1121 6  S1122 2
 S1123 4  S1131 5  S1132 4  S1133 3
 S1111 1  S1122 2  S1133 3  ( S1123  S1132 ) 4  ( S1113  S1131) 5  ( S1112  S1121) 6
 S1111 1  S1122 2  S1133 3  2 S1123 4  2 S1113 4  2 S1112 6

1  S11 1  S12 2  S13 3  S14 4  S15 5  S16 6

S11  S1111; S12  S1122; S13  S1133
S14  2S1123; S15  2S1113; S16  2S1112
S mn  S ijkl when m and n are 1, 2 and 3
S mn  2 S ijkl when either m or n equal 4, 5 and 6
S mn  4 S ijkl when both m and n equal 4, 5 and 6
 3 3
 11  C11lk lk   C11lk lk
l 1 k 1

 C1111 11  C1112 12  C1113 13  C1121 21  C1122 22

 C1123 23  C1131 31  C1132 32  C1133 33

 C1111 1  1 C1112 6  1 C1113 5  1 C1121 6  C1122 2

2 2 2
 1 C1123 4  1 C1131 5  1 C1132 4  C1133 3
2 2 2
 C1111 1  C1122 2  C1133 3  1 (C1123  C1132 ) 4  1 (C1113  C1131) 5  1 (C1112  C1121) 6
2 2 2
 C1111 1  C1122 2  C1133 3  C1123 4  C1113 5  C1112 6

 1  C111  C12 2  C13 3  C14 4  C15 5  C16 6

C11  C1111; C12  C1122; C13  C1133

C14  C1123; C15  C1113; C16  C1112

Cmn  Cijkl
 S mn  S ijkl when m and n are 1, 2 and 3

S mn  2 S ijkl when either m or n equal 4, 5 and 6

S mn  4 S ijkl when both m and n equal 4, 5 and 6

Cmn  Cijkl

m 1 2 3 4 5 6
ij 11 22 33 23/32 13/31 12/21

n 1 2 3 4 5 6
kl 11 22 33 23/32 13/31 12/21
Elastic constant for various symmetries

- Orthorhombic (abc and ===90o)

x2
x1’
Rotate 180 about z   13
 13
x1
x2’
 11  12  13  11  12   13
   21  22  23  '   21  22   23
 31  32  33   31   32  33

11 12 13 11 12  13

   21  22  23  '   21  22   23
 31  32  33   31   32  33
In old system
 1 C11 C12 C13 C14 C15 C16 1
 2 C21 C22 C23 C24 C25 C26 2
 3 C31 C32 C33 C34 C35 C36 3

 4 C41 C42 C43 C44 C45 C46 4
 5 C51 C52 C53 C54 C55 C56 5
 6 C61 C62 C63 C64 C65 C66 6

 1  C111  C12 2  C13 3  C14 4  C15 5  C16 6

In new system
 '1  C '11  '1 C '12  '2 C '13  '3 C '14  '4 C '15  '5 C '16  '6

 1  C '11 1  C '12  2  C '13  3  C '14  4  C '15  5  C '16  6

C11  C11' ; C12  C12' ; C13  C13' ; C14  C14'  0; C15  C15'  0; C16  C16'
 1 S11 S12 S13 0 0 0 1  1  S11 1  S12 2  S13 3
 2 S 21 S 22 S 23 0 0 0 2  2  S 21 1  S 22 2  S 23 3
 3 S31 S32 S33 0 0 0 3  3  S31 1  S32 2  S33 3
  4  S 44 4
4 0 0 0 S 44 0 0 4
 5  S55 5
5 0 0 0 0 S55 0 5
 6  S 66 6
6 0 0 0 0 0 S 66 6

 1 C11 C12 C13 0 0 0 1  1  C11 1  C12 2  C13 3

 2 C21 C22 C23 0 0 0 2  2  C21 1  C22 2  C23 3
 3 C31 C32 C33 0 0 0 3  3  C31 1  C32 2  C33 3

4 0 0 0 C44 0 0 4  4  C44 4
5 0 0 0 0 C55 0 5  5  C55 5
 6  C66 6
6 0 0 0 0 0 C66 6
A simple tensile test along x-direction

1 0 0
 0 0 0
0 0 0

1
1  S11 1  S12 2  S13 3  S11 1 S11 
E1
 2  S 21 1  S 22 2  S 23 3  S 21 1
 3  S31 1  S32 2  S33 3  S31 1
 4  S 44 4  0
 5  S55 5  0
 6  S 66 6  0

2 S v12
v12     21 S 21  
1 S11 E1
3 S v13
v13     31 S 31  
1 S11 E1
 0 0 0 0 0 0
  0 2 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 3

 1  S11 1  S12 2  S13 3  S12 2  1  S11 1  S12 2  S13 3  S13 3

 2  S 21 1  S 22 2  S 23 3  S 22 2  2  S 21 1  S 22 2  S 23 3  S 23 3
 3  S31 1  S32 2  S33 3  S32 2  3  S31 1  S32 2  S33 3  S33 3
 4  S 44 4  0  4  S 44 4  0
 5  S55 5  0  5  S55 5  0
 6  S 66 6  0  6  S 66 6  0
1
S 22 
1 S 33 
E2 E3

1 S v21 1 S v31
v21     12 S12   v31     13 S13  
2 S 22 E2 3 S33 E3
3 S v23 2 S v32
v23     32 S 32   v32     23 S 23  
2 S 22 E2 3 S 33 E3
- Cubic symmetry (a=b=c and ===90o)

C11 C12 C12 0 0 0 S11 S12 S12 0 0 0

C12 C11 C12 0 0 0 S12 S11 S12 0 0 0
C12 C12 C11 0 0 0 S12 S12 S11 0 0 0
0 0 0 C44 0 0 0 0 0 S 44 0 0
0 0 0 0 C44 0 0 0 0 0 S 44 0
0 0 0 0 0 C44 0 0 0 0 0 S 44

Anisotropy factor, A
C44 2( S11  S12 )
A 
1 S 44
(C11  C12 )
2
A simple tensile test along x-direction

1 0 0
 0 0 0
0 0 0

1
1  S11 1  S12 2  S12 3  S11 1 S11 
E1
 2  S12 1  S11 2  S12 3  S12 1
 3  S12 1  S12 2  S11 3  S12 1
 4  S 44 4  0
 5  S 44 5  0
 6  S 44 6  0

2 S v12
v12     12 S12  
1 S11 E1
v12  v13
 S v
v13   3   12 S12   13
1 S11 E1
E-modulus of cubic crystals
Along any direction (the direction cosines for this direction are l, m, and n),
Young’s modulus:
1 1
 S11  2( S11  S12  S 44 )(l 2 m 2  m 2 n 2  l 2 n 2 )
Ekhl 2
2( S11  S12 ) 1
A  S11  S12  AS44
S 44 2
1
 S11  ( A  1) S 44 (l 2 m 2  m 2 n 2  l 2 n 2 )
Ekhl

A>1
1 1
For [100], l = 1, m = n = 0  S11  E100 
E100 S11

1 1
 S11  ( A  1) S 44  S11
3 E111 3
For [111], l  m  n 
3 1
E111   E100
S11
 1
 S11  ( A  1) S 44 (l 2 m 2  m 2 n 2  l 2 n 2 )  S11
Ekhl
A<1
1 1
For [100], l = 1, m = n = 0  S11  E100 
E100 S11

1 1
 S11  ( A  1) S 44  S11
3 E111 3
For [111], l  m  n 
3 1
E111   E100
S11
A=1

1
 S11  ( A  1) S 44 (l 2 m 2  m 2 n 2  l 2 n 2 )  S11
Ekhl
- Isotropy

C44 2( S11  S12 )

A  1
1 S 44
(C11  C12 )
2

S44  2(S11  S12 )

There are only two independent components

Young’s modulus
1 1
 S11  2( S11  S12  S 44 )(l 2 m 2  m 2 n 2  l 2 n 2 )  S11
E 2

Shear modulus (rigidity)

1 1
  C44  (C11  C12 ) 
2 S 44
 v12
S12  
E1

v  S12 E

1
S44  2(S11  S12 ) S12  S11  S 44
2
1
v  ( S11  S 44 ) E
2
1 11
v  (  )E
E 2

E
v  1 
2

E

2(1  v)