Principle of

Neutralization
Titrations
Definitions

Arrehenius
• Acids – produce H+
only in water • Bases - produce OH-

Bronsted-Lowry • Acids – donate H+

any solvent
• Bases – accept H+

Lewis • Acids – accept e- pair

used in organic chemistry, • Bases – donate e- pair
wider range of substances
Example
The hydrogen ion in aqueous solution
H+ + H2O  H3O+ (hydronium ion)

Arrhenius HCl NaOH

Bronsted-Lowry HCl HCN NH3

Lewis BF3 :NH3

Bronsted-Lowry Concept

Conjugate pairs

HCl Cl- CH3COOH CH3COO-

NH4+ NH3 HNO3 NO3-

How does a conjugate pair differ?

H+ transfer
Conjugate Acids and Bases
One important consequence of these equilibria is
that every acid (HA) has a conjugate base (A−),
and vice-versa. In the base, dissociation
equilibrium above the conjugate acid of
base B is HB+. For a given acid or base, these
equilibria are linked by the water dissociation
equilibrium:

H2O(l) ⇌ H+(aq) + OH−(aq)

Kw = [H+][OH−]
Strong and Weak (Acids/Bases)

Strong acids/bases – 100% dissociation into ions

HCl, HBr, HI NaOH

HNO3 KOH
HClO4, H2SO4

Weak acids/bases – partial dissociation,

both ions and molecules

CH3COOH, HCN NH3

HF, H2S, HCOOH
pH/pOH Scale

pH = -log[H+]

with [H+] being the concentration of

H+ ions.
Monoprotic Acid

Acid with only one dissociable Hydrogen

Polyprotic Acid
Polyprotic acid contains more than one acidic hydrogen. For a polyprotic acid, n acidic
hydrogens will exist in solution in equilibrium with n conjugate base forms (for a total
of n+1 species)
 Indicators

• Indicators are dyes that can be added

that will change color in the presence of
an acid or base.
• Most are large molecules that act as
weak acids. The color changes occur
when the molecules is ionized (acting as
an acid) or un-ionized (acting as a base).
• Some indicators only work in a specific
range of pH. Choosing the right one is
important!
• Once the drops are added, the sample is
ruined
• Some dyes are natural, like radish skin
or red cabbage
Choosing the correct Indicators

 Not all indicators shift colors at pH 7.

 Many change colors over a wide range of pH
values.
 When testing a sample for acidity or basicity it
is best to choose an indicator that has a color
change close to pH 7
Or use pH paper
Or use a pH meter to get a digital reading
Sample Indicator pH ranges

• Crystal Violet = yellow (pH 1) blue

• Cresol Red = red (pH 2) yellow (pH 8) red
• Thymol Blue = red (pH 3) yellow (pH 8) green/blue
• Bromophenol blue = yellow (pH 4) blue
• Methyl orange = red (pH 4.5) orange/yellow
• Bromcresol green = yellow (pH 4.5) green/blue
• Methyl red = pink (pH 5.5) yellow
• Bromcresol purple = yellow (pH 6) purple
• Alizarin = yellow (pH 6.5) red (pH 12) purple
• Bromthymol blue = yellow (pH 7 ) green/blue
• Phenol red = yellow (pH 7.2) red
• Phenolpthalein = clear (pH 8.3) pink
• Thymolphtalien = clear (pH 10) blue
• Alizarin yellow GG = orange (pH 10.5) red
• Universal Indicator = red (pH 4) orange (pH 6) yellow (pH 7) green (pH 8) blue (pH 9)
purple
Titration Curve

A titration curve is a plot of pH vs. the

amount of titrant added. Typically the
titrant is a strong (completely) dissociated
acid or base. Such curves are useful for
determining endpoints and dissociation
constants of weak acids or bases.
Features of the Strong Acid-Strong Base Titration Curve

1. The pH starts out low, reflecting the high [H3O+]

of the strong acid and increases gradually as acid
is neutralized by the added base.
2. Suddenly the pH rises steeply. This occurs in the
immediate vicinity of the equivalence point. For
this type of titration the pH is 7.0 at the
equivalence point.
3. Beyond this steep portion, the pH increases
slowly as more base is added.
Sample Calculation: Strong Acid-Strong Base Titration Curve
the concentrations of hydronium and hydroxide ions must be equal.
Titrating a Strong Base with a Strong Acid
Titration Curves for Weak Acids