UNIT –V

MICROSENSORS
Microsensors
-most widely used MEMS devices.
-According to Madou [1997], a sensor is a device that
converts one from of energy into another.
- and provides the user with a usable energy output in
response to a specific measurable input.
- Example is to convert the energy that is required to deflect
the thin diaphragm in a pressure sensor into an electrical
energy output.
- Includes the sensing element and its associated signal
processing hardware.
- A smart sensor unit include automatic calibration
,interference signal reduction ,compensation for parasitic
effects, offset correction and self test.
- Microsensors are used to measure many physical quantities.
1. Biomedical Sensors and Biosensors
-major user of Microsystems.
-It encompasses i)biosensors ii)bio instruments and surgery
tool and iii)system for biotesting and analysis for quick
,accurate ,and low –cost testing of biological substances.
-Major technical issues involved in the application of MEMS
in biomedicine are
i. Functionality for biomedical operations.
ii. Adaptivity to existing instruments and equipment .
iii. Compatibility with biological system of patients .
iv. Controllability ,mobility and easy navigation for
operations such as those required in a laparoscopy surgery.
v. Fabrication of MEMS structures with a high aspect ratio,
defined as the ration of the dimensions in the depth of the
structure to the dimensions of the surface.
 Microsensors constitute the most fundamental element in
any bioMEMS product.
 Two type of sensors used in biomedicine i)biosensors ii)
biomedical sensors.
 Biomedical sensors are used to detect biological
substances.
 Biosensors may be broadly define as any measuring
devices that contain a biological element.
 These sensors involve biological molecules such as
antibodies or enzymes ,which interact with analytes that
are to be detected.
Biomedical Sensors
-classified as biomedical instruments that are used to measure
biological substances as well as for medical diagnosis
purposes.
-sensors can analyze biological samples in quick and accurate
ways.
Advantages over the traditional instruments
-require a minute amount of samples
-can perform analyses much faster with virtually no dead
volume.
There are many different types of biomedical sensors in the
market place.
Electrochemical sensor
-work on the principle that certain biological substances, such
as glucose in human blood,
-can release certain elements by chemical reaction.
-these elements can alter the electricity flow pattern in the
sensor which can be readily detected.
In Fig 2.1a)
A small sample of blood is introduced to a sensor with a
polyvinyl alcohol solution.
Two electrode are present in the sensor : a platinum flim
electrode and a thin Ag/AgCl flim (the reference electrode).
Chemical Reaction take place between the glucose in the
blood sample and the oxygen in the polyvinyl alcohol
solution:
Glucose + O2 gluconolactone + H2O2
- The H2O2 produced is electrolyzed by applying a potential
to the platinum electrode.
- With production of positive hydrogen ions ,which will flow
towards this electrode .
- Amount of glucose concentration in the blood sample can
thus be measured by measuring the current flow between
the electrode.
Biosensors
-work on the principle of the interaction of the analytes which are to be
detected with biological derived biomolecule,such as enzymes of
certain forms, antibodies and other forms of protein.
-these biomolecules, when attached to sensing elements ,can alter the
output signal of the sensors when they interact with the analyte.
-figure shows the functioning of sensor ,proper selection of bimolecules
for sensing element (chemical, optical etc.) can be used for detection
of analyte.
Biotesting and Analytical systems
-separate various species in biological samples.
-analytes include various biological substances and human genomes.
-operation of these systems involves the passage of minute samples in
the order of nanoliters in capillary tubes or microchannels driven by
electro hydrodynamic means such as electro-osmosis and
electrophoresis.
-electrohydrodynamics involve the driving of an ionized fluid by the
application of electric fields.
A capillary electrophoresis system
-A simple analyte system used in biotesting and analysis uses a capillary
electrophoresis(CE) network.
-The system consists of two capillary tubes of diameters in the order of 30um or
microchannels of similar sizes.
-The shorter channel is connected to the sample injection reservoir A and the analyte
waste reservoir A’.
-longer channel connected to the buffer solvent reservoirs B and B’ .
-A biological sample consisting of species S1,S2,S3,….. With distinct electro-osmotic
mobilities, is injected to reservoir A.
-Application of an electric field between the terminals at reservoir A and
A’ prompts the flow of the injected samples from A to A’.
-A congregation of the sample forms at the intersection of the two
channels because of higher resistance to the flow at the location.
-A high voltage electric field is then switched to the terminal B and B’.
-This electric field can drive the congregated sample in the buffer solvent
to flow from reservoir B to B’.
-The species in the sample can separate in this portion of the flow
because of their inherent differences in electro –osmotic mobility.
Chemical Sensors:-
-used to sense particular chemical compounds.
-various gas species.
-working is simple.
-many materials are sensitive to chemical attacks.
-significant oxide layer build up over the metal surface can
change material properties such as electrical resistance of
the metal.
-on this principle many microchemical sensors are designed &
developed.
-oxygen gas can in principle be sensed by measuring the
change of electrical resistance in a metallic material as a
result of the chemical reaction of oxidation.
-chemical sensor is used to detect the presence of oxygen.
-rapid process than the natural oxidation of metal.
-physical sizes of the sample are on the microscale.
Chemiresistor Sensors
-In fig below organic polymer are used with embedded metal
inserts.
-polymer can cause changes in the electric conductivity of
metal when it is exposed to certain gases.
-ex. A special polymer called phthalocyanine is used with
copper to sense ammonia (NH3) and nitrogen dioxide
(NO2) gases.
Chemicapacitor sensors
-some polymer can be used as the dielectric material in a
capacitor .
-exposure of these polymers to certain gases can alter the
dielectric constant of the material, which is in turn changes
the capacitance between the metal electrodes.
-ex. To use polyphenylacetylene(PPA) to sense gas species
such as CO,CO2,N2 and CH4.
Chemimechanical Sensors
-certain materials e.g. polymers, that can change shape when
they are exposed to chemicals(including moisture)
-one may detect such chemicals by measuring the change of
the dimensions of the material.
-detect such chemicals by measuring the change of the
dimensions of the material.
-ex. Moisture sensor using pyraline PI-2722.
Metal oxide gas sensors
-works on a principle similar to that of chemiresistor sensors.
-Several semiconducting metals ,such as SnO2, change their
electric resistance after absorbing certain gases.
-the process is faster when heat is applied to enhance the
reactivity of the measured gases and the transconduction
semiconducting metal.
-a microsensor based on the semiconducting material SnO2.
---Better results are obtained if metallic catalysts are
deposited on the surface of the sensor.
Such deposition can speed up the reactions and hence
increase the sensitivity of the sensor----
Optical Sensors
-The principle of interaction between the photons in light and
the electrons in the solids that receive the light have been
well developed in quantum physics.
-Devices that can convert optical signals into electronic
output have been developed and utilized in many
consumer products such as television .
-Micro-optical sensors have been developed to sense the
intensity of light.
-Solid–state materials that provide strong photon –electron
interaction are used as the sensing materials .
Four Fundamental Optical Sensing Devices
-The photovaltaic junction in fig a) can produce an electric potential
when the more transparent substrate of semiconductor A is subjected
to incident photon energy.
-produced voltage can be measured from the change of electrical
resistance in the circuit by an electrical bridge circuit.
-Fig b) illustrate special material that changes its electrical resistance
when it is exposed to light.
-The photodiodes in fig c) are made of p- and n- doped semiconductor
layers.
-The phototransistor in fig d) are made up of p-,n- and p-doped layers.
-As illustrated in this fig, incident photon energy can be converted into
electric current output from these devices.
-all devices miniaturized in size and have extremely short response time
in generating electrical signals.
-They are excellent candidates for micro-optical sensors.
Pressure Sensor
-on the principle of mechanical deformation and stresses of thin
diaphragms induced by the measurand pressure.
-Mechanically induced diaphragms deformation and stresses are
converted into electrical signal output trough several means of
transduction.
Two Types of Pressure Sensor

Absolute pressure sensor gage pressure sensor

-an evacuated cavity on - no evacuation is necessary.
one side of the diaphragm.
-Measured pressure is the absolute
Value with vaccum as the
reference pressure.
 Two ways to apply pressure to diaphragm
1.With back side pressurization
2.Front –side pressurization

-there is no inference with -used only at under

signal transducer, such as a very special circumstances
piezoresistor, that is normally because of the pressurizing
implanted at the top medium with signal transducer.
surface of the diaphragm. Signal transducer are rarely placed
on the back of the surface diaphragm
because of space limitation.
-As shown in fig the sensing element is usually made of thin silicon die
varying in size from a few m to a few mm square.

-cavity is created from one side of the die –using micro fabrication
technique.

-the top surface of the cavity forms the thin diaphragm that deforms
under the applied pressure from the measurand fluid.

-thickness of silicon diaphragm usually varies from a few m to tens of

meters.

-a constraints base made of metal (called a header) or ceramic (pyrex

glass is a common material)support the silicon die.

-the deformation of the diaphragm by the applied pressure is transuded

into electrical signal by various transduction techniques.
Packaged pressure sensor
-top view of silicon die shows four piezoresistors (R1,R2,R3 and R4)
implanted beneath the surface of the silicon die.
-these piezoresistors convert the stresses induced in the silicon
diaphragm by the applied pressure into a change of electrical
resistance, which is then converted into voltage output by a
Wheatstone bridge circuit.
-piezoresistors are miniaturized semiconductor strain gages , which can
produce the change of electrical resistance induced by mechanical
stresses.
-In fig shown below
-resistor R1 & R3 are elongated the stresses induced by the applied
pressure ,such elongation causes an increase of electrical resistance in
these resistors , whereas the resistor R2 and R4 experience the opposite
resistance change.
-these changes of resistance as induced by the applied measurand
pressure are measured from Wheatstone bridge in the dynamic
deflection operation mode as

 R1 R3 
V0  Vin   
 1
R  R4 R2  R3 

-Fig below illustrates a micro pressure sensing unit utilizing capacitance

change for pressure measurement.
-two electrodes made of thin metal films are attached to the bottom of the
top cover and the top of the diaphragm.
-any deformation of the diaphragm due to the applied pressure will
narrow the gap between the two electrodes, leading to a change of
capacitance across the electrode.
-capacitance in parallel plate capacitor can be related to a gap of d
between the plates by the expression
A
C   r 0
d
-capacitors are common transducers as well as actuators in
microsystems.
-The capacitance variation in a capacitor can be measured by simple
circuits such as that illustrated in fig below

-The electrical bridge in fig above is similar to the Wheatstone bridge for
resistance measurements .
-the variable capacitance can be measured by measuring the output
voltage V0 .
-The following relationship can be used to determine the variable
capacitance in the circuit:
C
V0  Vin
2(2C  C )
-C is the capacitance change in the capacitor in the micro
pressure sensor and c is the capacitance of the other
capacitors in the bridge.
The bridge is subjected to a constant supply voltage Vin
Manifold Absolute pressure(MAP) Sensor for an automobile
Thermal Sensors
Thermal Sensors:
 Thermocouple are the most common transducer used to sense heat .
 Operate on principle of electromotive force(emf) produced at the open
ends of two dissimilar metallic wires when the junction of wires called
bear is heated .
 The temperature rise at the junction due to heating can be correlated to
the magnitude of the produced emf or voltage.
 Junction can be made very small in size.
 By introducing an additional junction in the thermocouple circuit as
shown in fig below and exposing that junction to different temp than
other.
 Induce a temperature gradient in the circuit itself.
 This arrangement of thermocouple with both hot & cold junctions can
produce the seebeck effect.
 The voltage generated by thermocouple can be evaluated by V=β∆T.
 Β=seebeck coefficient ,∆T=temperature difference between hot &
cold junction.
 Maintain cold junction temperature constant 0 degree ,by dipping it in
ice water.
 Coefficient β depends on thermocouple wire materials and the range
of temperature measurement.
 Drawback –for micro thermal transducers the output of
thermocouple decreases as the size of the wires and the beads is
reduced .
 Thermocouple are alone not ideal for micro thermal sensors.
MICROTHERMOPILE
-realistic solution for miniaturized heat sensing thermopiles operate
with both hot & cold junction but they are arranged with
thermocouples in parallel and voltage output in series.
Fig 2.14
 Material for themopile is same thermocouple-copper /constantan(Type
T),chrome/alumel(type K) etc.
 The voltage output from a thermopile can be obtained by the following expression
∆V=Nβ∆T.
N=number of thermocouple pairs in the thermopile.
β=thermolectric power of the two thermocouple materials V/K.

∆T=temperature difference across the thermocouples K.

 A total of 32 polysilicon gold thermocouples were used in the
thermopile.
MICROACTUATION
-an actuator as a “mechanical device for moving or controlling
something.”
-the actuator is a very important part of a microsystem that
involves motion.
-four principle means are commonly used for actuating
motions of microdevices: (1) themal forces, (2) shape
memory alloys,(3) piezoelectric crystals, and 4) electrostatic
forces.
-Electromagnetic actuation is widely used in devices and
machines at microscales.
-An actuator is designed to deliver a desired motion is driven
by a power source.
-Actuators can be as simple as an electrical relay switch or as
complex as an electric motor.
-The driving power for actuators varies ,depending on specific
applications.
Three commonly used sources for Microactuation
1. Actuation Using Thermal Forces
-Bimetallic strips are actuators based on thermal forces .
-these strips are made by bonding two material with distinct
thermal expansion coefficients.
-the strip will bend when is heated or cooled from the initial
reference temperature because of incompatible thermal
expansion of materials that are bonded together .
-return to its initial reference shape once the applied thermal
force is removed.
-same principle has been used to produce several
microactuators such as microclamps or valves.
-In these cases one of the strips is used as a resistance heater.
-the other strip could be made from a common
microstructural material such as silicon or
polysilicon.
-The behavior of thermally actuated bimetallic strips
is illustrated in fig below.
-The two constituent materials have coefficient materials have
coefficients of thermal expansion α1 ,α2 respectively. With α1 > α2.
-beam will deform from its original straight shape to a bent shape shown
in the right of the figure when it is heated by external sources.
-after removal of heat return to its original shape.
2.Actuation Using shape-Memory Alloys
-can be produced more accurately and effectively by using shape
memory alloys (SMA) such as Nitinolor or TiNi alloys.
-these alloys tend to return to their original shape at a preset temperature.
Working principle:- A SMA strip is originally in a bent shape at a
designed preset temperature T is attached to a silicon cantilever beam.
-would prompt the strip’s memory to return to its original bent shape.
-The deformation of the SMA strip causes the attached silicon beam to
deform with the strip, and microactuation of the beam is thus
achieved .
-this type of actuation has been used extensively in micro rotary
actuators, micro joints and robots ,and microsprings.
3.Actuation using Piezoelectric Crystals
-Certain crystals, such as quartz ,that exist in nature
deform with the application of an electric voltage.
-reverse is also valid; i.e. an electric voltage can be
generated across the crystal when an applied force
deforms the crystal.
-attach a crystal to a flexible silicon beam in a
microactuator ,as shown in fig 2.19
-An applied voltage across the piezoelectric crystal
prompts a deformation of the crystal, which can in
turn bend the attached silicon cantilever beam.
-piezoelectric actuation is used in a micropositioning
mechanism and microclamp .
-piezoelectric crystals are essential materials for
microactuators .
4.Actuation Using Electrostatic Forces
-Electrostatic forces are used as the driving forces for
many actuators.
-Accurate assessment of electrostatic forces is an
essential part of the design of many micromotors and
actuators.
Coulomb’s law
Electrostatic force F is defined as the electrical force of
repulsion or attraction induced by an electric field E.
-an electric field E exists in a field carrying positive and
negative electric charges.
-mathematical formula for determining the magnitude of
the force F between two charged particles.
-

-with reference to fig above ,where two charged particles A & B are
in an electric field ,the induced electrostatic force ,according to
coloumb ,
F=1/4πε(qq’/r2 )
-In which ε=permittivity of the material separating two particles.
r=the distance between the two charged particles in the field.
-The forces F is repulsive if both charges q and q’ carry positive or
negative charges or attractive if two charges have opposite signs.