SUB-SAHARAN

AFRICA FROM
PRE-HISTORY
TO 1500 C.E.
PRE-HISTORIC AFRICA
• Regions in Africa
• Sub-Saharan Africa vs. Northern Africa (inc. Nile Valley)
• The Sahara is the greatest physical and cultural barrier
• North settled early by Berbers, Hamites (Caucasian groups)
• Sub-Saharan Africa has larger regions with many micro regions
• West Africa Forest, Sahel called Sudan, Central Africa, East Africa, South Africa
• Each region defined by physical geography and vegetation; many micro cultures
• North and East Africa saw first “African” civilizations
• The Nile River: Pharaonic Egypt; Kush-Meroe (often called Nubia)
• The Ethiopian Highlands: Axum (Aksum) or Ethiopia
• North Africa: Carthaginian Empire, Roman and Greek civilizations
• The Sudan
• Sudanic region was sahel or plains stretching across Africa south of Sahara
• 9000 B.C.E. domestication of cattle; cultivation of sorghum, cotton
• Became home to most Sub-Saharan civilizations
• Small states based on tribes, clans developed
• Religion: polytheism, shamanism, placation of spirits, divination
• Climatic Change
• Prior to 5000 CE Sahara one large inland sea surrounded by plains
• 5000 B.C.E. development of Sahara Desert as desertification increased
• Increasing desertification forced mass popular migration to water
• Nile shifts to east; formation of large lakes in Central Africa that feed Nile
REGIONS IN AFRICA
AFRICAN CLIMATE ZONES
AFRICAN LANGUAGE FAMILIES
FIRST AFRICAN CIVILIZATIONS
• Egyptian History, c. 3100 BCE to 525 BCE
• Pre-history dominated by small city-states along Nile
• Old Kingdom
• Menes- Narmer united Upper/Lower Egypt
• Pyramid building era; pharaohs considered divine
• Middle Kingdom
• 2nd Illness saw Semitic invasion: Hyksos
• New Kingdom saw rise of empire
• 3rd Illness saw invasions by Kush, Assyrians, Sea Peoples
• Eventually ruled by Persians, Greeks, Romans, Byzantines
• Kush in Upper Nile assimilates Egyptian culture
• Ethnically were Black Africans
• Adopted many of Egyptian practices: religion, architecture
• Ruled Egypt as 26th Dynasty
• Famous for iron, gold trade
• Remained independent until Muslim conquests
ANCIENT EGYPT
MAP OF ANCIENT KUSH
ANCIENT MAP OF AFRICA
 NILE SOCIETIES
• Urban elites (2%) ruled over rural masses
• Social Classes
• Pharaoh (ruler and his immediate family)
• Officials (Advisors, generals, soldiers, priests)
• Merchants and artisans
• Peasants
• Slaves
• Patriarchal societies with a twist
• Women were occasionally rulers
• Women had rights, could own lands
• Were “less” than males but not oppressed
RELIGIONS OF THE NILE
• Polytheism
• Extremely complex pantheon of gods
• Deification of nature
• Extremely powerful, influential priesthood with great wealth
• Conflict of good, evil
• Humans judged for their actions
• Cult of Osiris
• Strong belief in afterlife, accountability for actions
• Mummification was but one aspect of this
• Regenerative cycle of Osiris/Ra-Re/Horus
• Ahkenaton and Monotheism
• Amenhotep believed there was only one God
• Ended polytheism, opposed by priests; was assassinated
• Nubian Beliefs
• Adopted many Egyptian beliefs
• Major focus on the sun and moon
 WRITING
• Early Nile Writing
• Hieroglyphics (Pictographs)
• Merotic Writing in Nubia
• Ge’ez Writing in Axum
• Education
• Scribes had influence
• Often attached to court or temples
• Services rented out
• Scribes could advance socially
• Sub-Saharan Writing
• Lacked alphabet, books
• Lack due to termites, lack of durable medium
• Developed oral traditional, tribal memories
• West African griots
• Memorized history by mneumonic devices
• Kept all records for tribes, rulers
• Islam brought first alphabet to Sub-Saharan Africa
 ECONOMICS OF NILE
• Economic Specialization and Trade
• Bronze Age arose around 17th century B.C.E.
• Iron Age begins around 1,000 B.C.
• Transportation
• Largely waterborne; little need for roads
• Out of Nile Valley, camels and horses were common
• Trade
• Egypt was largely self-sufficient, autarkic
• Net exporter of grains, foodstuffs, luxuries, paper, medicines
• Most trade was based on luxury products
• Papyrus, paper, medicines, herbs, finished products especially silver
• Imports tended to be wood, gold, finished products
• Kush-Meroe specialized in iron, gold workings
• Trade Routes
• Up Nile to Kush-Meroe
• Across Sinai to Fertile Cresent
• Down Red Sea to East Africa, Southern Arabia
• Across Mediterranean to Greece, Phoenicia
• Little contact with interior of Africa                            
 THE NOK CULTURE
• Discovered 1928 in Northern Nigeria
• Was it a civilization or advanced culture?
• Flourished 900 BCE to 200 CE on Niger-Benue River
• Clearly first Sub-Saharan civilization/culture
• Precursor of Bantu, West African forest peoples
• Knowledge is based on archeology
• Iron makers and sculptors
• Animals and humans made from fired clay
• Figures of animals, peoples including leaders
• Seem to have been pastoralists, farmers
• Could smelt iron
• Have found iron tools, weapons; probably also used wood
• Seemed to have skipped copper, bronze ages
• Indigenous or borrowed from North Africa, Nile River?
GHANA: 1ST SUB-SAHARAN CIVILIZATION
• Camels
• Camels came to Egypt from Arabia, 7th century B.C.E.
• Romans introduced them to North Africa, patrolled desert
• After 500 C.E. camels replaced horses, donkeys as transport animals
• Camels' arrival quickened pace of communication across the Sahara
• Islamic merchants crossed the desert to trade in West Africa
• Established relations with sub-Saharan West Africa by 8th century
• The kingdom of Ghana
• Kings maintained a large army of two hundred thousand warriors
• A principal state of west Africa, not related to modern state of
Ghana
• Became the most important commercial site in west Africa
• Controlled gold mines, exchanged it with nomads for salt
• Provided gold, ivory, and slaves
• Wanted horses, cloth, manufactured goods
• Koumbi-Saleh
• Capital city
• Thriving commercial center
ARRIVAL OF ISLAM IN AFRICA
• Islam in Africa
• North Africa
• Arab armies conquered region by early 8th Century; pushed up Nile
• Mass conversions of local inhabitants due to tax incentives
• West Africa
• Introduced by Trans-Saharan Trade route
• Merchants were greatest contact with Islam
• Local rulers, elites converted by 10th century
• Gave elites control of trade, many benefits
• Allowed people to observe traditional beliefs
• Nomadic Berbers in North Africa
• Berbers and Arabs were bitter rivals
• Arabs settled coastlands, cities
• Berbers lived in deserts, mountains
• Berbers became puritanical Muslim, Shia
• Berber fanatics invaded Ghana, Morocco
• Ghana weakened, fell 10th century CE
• Elite religion vs. common practices
• Most people remained polytheists especially outside of cities, towns
• Produced syncretic blend such as accommodation of African gender norms
• After conversion by elites, old beliefs remained; part of inherited traditions
• Religion introduced writing, literary traditions
 KINGDOM OF MALI
• Mandike Peoples
• Ghana was established by Mandika
• After fall of Ghana, Mandika established many small states
• Most people were not Muslims but merchants were
• Sundiata
• After Ghana dissolved, political leadership shifted to Mali empire, a Mandika state
• The lion prince Sundiata (reigned 1230-55) built the Mali empire
• Ruling elites, families converted to Islam after his death
• The Mali empire and trade
• Controlled gold, salt; taxed almost all trade passing through west Africa
• Enormous caravans linked Mali to north Africa
• Besides Niani, many prosperous cities on caravan routes
• Mansa Musa
• Sundiata's grand nephew, reigned from 1312 to 1337
• Made his pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324-1325
• Gargantuan caravan of thousand soldiers and attendants
• Gold devalued 25% in Cairo during his visit
• Mansa Musa and Islam
• Upon return to Mali, built mosques
• Sent students to study with Islamic scholars in North Africa
• Established Islamic schools in Mali
• The decline of Mali
• Factions crippled the central government
• Rise of province of Gao as rival to Mali
• Military pressures from neighboring kingdoms, desert nomads
 SONGHAI EMPIRE
• Origins
• Sorko fishermen of Niger became merchants
• Joined Gao state (part of Malian Empire)
• Mali could never collect taxes from Gao
• Rise
• Sonni Ali the Great build cavalry, war fleet
• Disputed Mali, conquer Timbuktu
• Anti-Muslim: saw them as a threat
• Zenith
• Askia Muhammad seized power after Sonni’s death
• Devout Muslim, promoted Islam; launched jihads
• Visited Cairo, Mecca; promoted Songhai to Muslims
• Declared Caliph of the Sudan
• Built centralized state using Muslim jurists as advisors
• Tradition and Trade
• Maintained tribal rituals of sacred drum, sacred fire, dress
• Privileged caste craftsmen; slaves important in agriculture
• Traded kola nuts, gold, slaves for horses, salt, luxuries, finished goods
• Fall
• Civil war erupted in 16th century
• Demographic Changes
• Drought, desertification hurt economy
• Diseases spread
• Moroccan Empire invades and destroys state in order to control gold trade
 KANEM-BORNU
• Origins
• Situated north east of Lake Chad.
• In 11th century, Sefawa dynasty was established
• Shift in lifestyle
• From entirely nomadic to pastoralist way of life with agriculture
• State became more centralized with capital at Njimi; maintained large cavalry
• Islam and Trade
• Kanem converted to Islam under Hu or Hawwa (1067-71).
• Faith was not widely embraced until the 13th century.
• Muslim traders played a role in bringing Islam to Kanem
• Wealth of Kanem derived from ability of rulers to control trade
• Main exports were ostrich feathers, slaves and ivory; imported horses, luxuries
• Exports were crucial to their power, ability to dominate neighbors
• A Change
• Combination of overgrazing, dynastic uncertainties, attacks from neighbors
• Rulers of Kanem to move to Borno, state now referred to as Kanem-Borno
• New contacts with Hausa of Nigeria; capital becomes center of knowledge, trade
• Army modernized by trade with Muslim, Turks: acquired firearms
• Decline was long, gradual and peaceful: fell in the 19th century
 THE BANTU
• The Bantu peoples
• Originated in the region around modern Nigeria/Cameroon
• Influenced by Nok iron making, herding, agriculture
• Population pressure drove migrations, 2000 BCE – 700 BCE
• Two major movements: to south and to east and then south
• Languages split into about 500 distinct but related tongues
• Bantu agriculture and herding
• Early Bantu relied on agriculture – slash-burn, shifting
• Pastoralists, semi-nomadic due to agriculture, cattle
• Iron metallurgy
• Iron appeared during the 7th and 6th centuries B.C.E.
• Iron made agriculture more productive
• Expanded divisions of labor, specialization in Bantu societies
• Population Pressures
• Iron technologies produced population upsurge
• Large populations forced migration of Bantu
 THE BANTU MIGRATION
• The Bantu Migration
• Population pressure led to migration, c. 2000 B.C.E.
• Movement to South, along Southeast and Southwest coasts
• Languages differentiated into about 500 distinct but related tongues
• Occupied most of sub-Saharan (except West) Africa by 1000 C.E.
• Split into groups as they migrated: Eastern, Central, Southern
• Bantu spread iron, herding technologies as they moved
• Bananas
• Between 300/500 C.E., Malay seafarers reached Africa
• Settled in Madagascar, visited East African coast
• Brought with them pigs, taro, and banana cultivation
• Bananas became well-established in Africa by 500 C.E.
• Bantu learned to cultivate bananas from Malagasy
• Bananas caused second population spurt, migration surge
• Reached South Africa in 16th century CE
• Population growth
• 3.5 million people by 400 B.C.E.
• 11 million by the beginning of the millennium
• 17 million by 800 C.E.
• 22 million by 1000 C.E.
MAP OF THE BANTU MIGRATIONS
BANTU LANGUAGES
BANTU POLITICAL ORGANIZATIONS
• Stateless societies
• Early Bantu societies did not depend on elaborate bureaucracy
• Societies governed through family and kinship groups
• Village council, consisted of male family heads
• Chief of a village was from the most prominent family heads
• A group of villages constituted a district
• Villages chiefs negotiated intervillage affairs
• Chiefdoms
• Population growth strained resources, increased conflict
• Some communities began to organize military forces, 1000 C.E.
• Powerful chiefs overrode kinship networks and imposed authority
• Some chiefs conquered their neighbors
• Kingdom of Kongo
• Villages formed small states along the Congo River, 1000 C.E.
• Small states formed several larger principalities, 1200 C.E.
• One of the principalities conquered neighbors, built kingdom of
Kongo
• Maintained a centralized government with a royal currency system
• Provided effective organization until the mid-17th century
SOCIAL ORGANIZATIONS
• Diversity of African societies in Sub-Saharan Africa
• Complex societies developed into kingdoms, empires, and city-states
• Coexisted with small states and stateless societies
• Lineages consisted of all members descended from a common ancestor
• Kinship groups of stateless societies
• Extended families and clans as social and economic organizations
• Communities claimed rights to land, no private property
• Village council allocated land to clan members
• Sex and gender relations
• Men undertook heavy labor, herding,
• Women were responsible for child rearing, domestic chores, farming
• Men monopolized public authority but women could be leaders
• Women enjoyed high honor as the source of life
• Many societies were matrilineal; aristocratic women influenced public affairs
• Women merchants commonly traded at markets
• Sometimes women organized all-female military units
• Islam did little to curtail women's opportunities in sub-Saharan Africa
• Age grades
• Publicly recognized "age grades" or "age sets"
• Assumed responsibilities and tasks appropriate to their age grades
• Coming of age ceremonies and secret societies restricted by age, gender
 SLAVERY
• Slavery in Africa
• Most slaves were captives of war, debtors, criminals
• Kept for local use or sold in slave markets
• Often used as domestic laborers especially agricultural workers
• Generally not a social stigma attached
• Slaves could receive freedom, become part of family, tribe
• Children born to slaves were not slaves
• Slave trading
• Slave trade increased after the 11th century CE
• Primary markets
• Across Sahara to North Africa and Egypt and ultimately Arabia
• Out of East Africa to Arabia and Middle East
• In some years, 10 to 12 thousand slaves shipped out of Africa
• Males preferred, could also act as carriers of trade goods
• 10 million slaves transported by Islamic trade between 750/1500
• Demand for slaves outstripped supply from eastern Europe
• Original slaves preferred in Muslim world were Caucasian Slavs
• Word “slave” comes from Slav
• Slave raids against smaller states, stateless societies
• Muslims could not be used as slaves (Quran) yet often ignored
 EARLY AFRICAN RELIGION
• Creator god
• Recognized by almost all African peoples
• Created the earth and humankind, source of world order
• Lesser gods and spirits
• Often associated with natural features, forces in world
• Participated actively in the workings of the world
• Believed in ancestors' souls influencing material world
• Diviners
• Mediated between humanity and supernatural beings
• Called shamans and inappropriately “witch doctors”
• Interpreted the cause of the people's misfortune
• Used medicine or rituals to eliminate problems
• African religion was not theological, but practical
• Religion to placate the gods, ask for assistance, cures, fertility
• Public celebrations inc. dancing, singing formed community
• Genders honored different deities, had separate ceremonies
EARLY EAST AFRICAN HISTORY
• Early visitors to east Africa
• Egyptians visited, traded with area
• Famous expedition of Hatshepshut to Punt
• Indian, Persian visited after 500 B.C.E.
• Greeks, Romans called area Azania
• Malays established colonies on Madagascar
• Kingdom of Axum (Aksum)
• Sabeans of Yemen created Axum
• Arose in highlands of Ethiopia
• Trading state across Bab el Mandeb straits
• Tribute empire on land; trade gold, frankincense, myrrh, food, ivory
• Built stone structures, issued own coins
• Eventually became Monophysite Christian
• King Ezana converted and court followed in early 4th century
• Developed Ge’ez language, writing in association with Christianity
• Maintained strong contacts with Egypt
• Traded with Romans, Byzantines, Persians, Indians, Arabs
• By 2nd century: Bantus populated much of East Africa
• By 7th century: Arab merchants begin to visit
• By 8th century: Muslim armies, merchants push up Nile
THE SWAHILI CITY-STATES
• Intermarriage of the Bantu and the Arab produced Swahili
• An Arabic term, meaning "coasters"
• Dominated east African coast from Mogadishu to Sofala
• Swahili is a Bantu language mixed with Arabic
• The Swahili city-states
• Chiefs gained power through taxing trade on ports
• Developed into city-states ruled by kings, 11th-12th centuries
• Controlled trade from interior: slaves, gold, ivory, spices
• Exchanged goods for finished goods, cloths, dyes, luxuries
• Craftsmen, artisans, clerks were Muslims
• Slaves used for domestic, agriculture
• Zanzibar clove plantations needed slaves
• Kilwa
• One of the busiest city-states
• Multistory stone buildings, mosques, schools
• Issued copper coins from the 13th century
• By 15th century, exported ton of gold per year
• Merchants from India, China, Arabia visited
• Islam in East Africa
• Ruling elite and wealthy merchants converted to Islamic faith
• Conversion promoted close cooperation with Muslim merchants
• Conversion also opened door to political alliances with Muslim rulers
 ZIMBABWE
• South Central Africa
• Wooded and grass savannahs
• Rich in minerals especially copper, gold
• Bantu herders, ironsmiths found it wonderful
• Zimbabwe
• A powerful kingdom of Central Africa arose in 13th century
• From 5th centuries C.E. built wooden residences known as zimbabwe
• By the 9th century began to build stone zimbabwe
• Magnificent stone complex known as Great Zimbabwe, the 12th century
• 18,000 people lived in Great Zimbabwe in the late 15th century
• Kings and wealth
• Organized flow of gold, ivory
• Trade include slaves
• Counted wealth in cattle, too
• Traded with Swahili city-states
 CHRISTIANITY IN AFRICA
• Early Christianity in North Africa
• Christianity reached Africa during 1 st century C.E.
• St. Mark converted Egypt, spread up Nile
• Romans introduced faith to North Africa
• North Africa was home to many heresies
• Arianism = Jesus was human
• Monophysites = Jesus had one nature
• Donatists = Apostate Christians could not return
• Vandal German settlers were Arian Christians
• Byzantine conquest returned north to Catholics
• Region had no influence on sub-Saharan African
• Monophysite Christianity along the Nile
• Believed Christ had one nature, largely divine
• Persecuted; declared heresy by Chalcedon
• The Christian kingdoms of Nubia and Axum
• 1st Christian kingdom, 4th century C.E.,
• Nubians of Kush also became Christian
• Both adopted Monophysite form of Christianity
• Ethiopian and Nubian Christianity
• Had little contact with Christians of other lands
• Shared basic Christian theology/rituals, developed own features
• Isolated, attacked by Islam
MOVEMENT IN AFRICAN HISTORY
ECONOMIC REGIONS OF AFRICA
HISTORIC AFRICA IN REVIEW