Solar Energy

• Beam radiation:
Solar radiation that has not been absorbed or
scattered and reaches the ground directly from the
sun is called beam radiation.

• Diffuse radiation:
Solar radiation received from the sun after its
direction has been changed by reflection and
scattering by the atmosphere is called diffused
radiation.

Total radiation = Beam radiation + Diffuse

radiation
• The heat generated by the sun is due to various fusion reactions.

• Diameter of sun (D) = 1.39 × 106 𝑘𝑚

• Diameter of earth (d) = 1.27 × 104 𝑘𝑚

• Mean distance between sun & earth (L) = 1.5 × 108 𝑘𝑚

• Solar constant (𝐼𝑠𝑐 ):

The rate at which solar energy arrives at the top of the atmosphere is called solar constant.
Or
This is the amount of energy received in unit time on a unit area perpendicular to the sun’s direction at the mean
distance of the earth from the sun.
Solar intensity of radiation (I) can be approximated by

𝐼 360 𝑛 − 2 𝑛 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟

= 1 + 0.033 × cos
𝐼𝑠𝑐 365 𝐼𝑠𝑐 = 1353 𝑊/𝑚2

360×𝑛
≃ 1 + 0.033 × cos
365
 Solar radiation geometry
• Latitude (⌀𝑙 ):
It is the angle made by the radial line joining the location to the centre of the earth with projection of line
on the equatorial plane.
• Declination (𝛿):
It is the angle between the line extending from the centre of the sun to the centre of the earth &
the projection of the line upon the earth’s equatorial plane.
360(284 + 𝑛)
𝛿 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑔. = 23.45 sin
365
• Hour angle (𝜔):
It is the angle through which the earth must turn to bring the meridian of a point directly inline
with the sun rays. It is equivalent to 150 𝑝𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟. In India 82.50 𝐸 is treated as standard
meridian.
• Altitude angle (𝛼):
It is a vertical angle between the projection of the sun’s rays on the horizontal plane &
direction of sun’s rays (passing through the point).
• Zenith angle (𝛳𝑧 ):
It is a vertical angle between sun’s rays & a line perpendicular to the horizontal plane
through the point.
𝜋
𝛳𝑧 = − 𝛼
2
• Azimuth angle (𝛾𝑠 ):
It is the solar angle in degree along the horizon east or west of north.
Or
It is the horizontal angle measured from north to the horizontal projection of the sun’s rays. This
angle is positive when measured west wise.
Or
It is the angle measured in horizontal plane between line due south & projection of sun ray on
horizontal plane.
• Slope (s):
It is the angle made by the plane surface with the horizontal.
It is taken as positive for surface slopping towards the south and negative for the
surface slopping towards the north.
• Incident angle (𝛳):
it is the angle being measured between the beam of rays and normal to the plane.
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛳 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛⌀𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑠 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑠 +
𝑐𝑜𝑠⌀𝑙 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑠)+ 𝛷= Latitude
𝛿= Declination
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛾 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔 sins ……………………………(1) 𝘴= Slope
𝛾= Azimuth angle
𝜔= Hour angle
• At solar noon hour angle 𝜔 = 00
For vertical surface slope s = 900
Hence equation 1 becomes
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛳 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛⌀𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔 −
𝑐𝑜𝑠⌀ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾+
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛾 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔
For horizontal surface S= 00
Hence equation 1 becomes
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛳 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛⌀𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠⌀𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔 𝛳= 𝛳𝑧 𝑧𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒

For surface facing due south 𝛾= 00

Hence equation 1 becomes
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛳 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛⌀ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑠 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑠 +
𝑐𝑜𝑠⌀(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑠)

For vertical surface facing due south s = 900 , 𝛾= 00

Hence equation 1 becomes
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛳 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛⌀ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠⌀𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿
• Day length:
At the time of sun rise or sun set the zenith angle 𝛳𝑧 = 900
Substituting in equation
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛳 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛⌀ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠⌀ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔
𝑠𝑖𝑛⌀ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔 = −
𝑐𝑜𝑠⌀ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿

= −𝑡𝑎𝑛 ⌀ tan𝛿

𝜔𝑠 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (−𝑡𝑎𝑛 ⌀ tan𝛿)

2𝜔𝑠
Day length 𝑡𝑑 =
15

2𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (−𝑡𝑎𝑛 ⌀ tan𝛿)

= for horizontal surface
15
2𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (−𝑡𝑎𝑛 (⌀ − 𝑠 ) tan𝛿)
𝑡𝑑 = for tilted surface
15
 Solar radiation measurement
• Pyrheliometer:
It is an instrument used to measure
beam radiation.

• Pyranometer:
It is an instrument used to measure
either global or diffused radiation.
Constructional details of Pyrheliometer
 Constructional details of Pyranometer
1. Outer dome made from a hemisphere of optical-quality glass (⌀50mm).
2. Inner dome made from a smaller hemisphere of optical glass (⌀30mm).
3. Black carbon disk (illuminated by the Sun) absorbs a broad range of
wavelengths of solar radiation and acts as the sensing element (⌀25mm).
4. Second, control disk (not illuminated by the Sun) acts as a comparison
and compensating element
5. Thermopile temperature sensor compares the temperature rise of the two
disks.
6. Output lead (usually about 10m or 30ft long).
7. Replaceable silica gel cartridge (desiccant) absorbs moisture to prevent
dew forming inside on cold nights.
8. Adjustable screw legs let you level the pyranometer using its built-in,
high-precision spirit level, which is sensitive to a fraction of a degree.
Shading ring arrangement for diffused radiation
• Frame ABCD 35 cm × 80 cm.

• Angle iron arms EF & GH 70 cm long with slots

along their length.

• Slider SS on which semi-circular shading ring R of

450 mm radius & 50 mm broad.

• Inner surface of ring painted dull black, while rest of

the shading ring arrangement is dull mat white.

• Plate P' to mount pyranometer.

Sunshine Recorder
 Thermoelectric transducer
• Angstrom Compensation Pyrheliometer

Blackened manganin strip (20 × 2 × 0.1 𝑚𝑚)

Energy absorbed by direct radiation
2
𝑅
𝐻𝐷𝑁 = 𝐾𝑖 =
𝑊𝛼
HDN = Direct radiation incident on an area normal
to sun’s rays
K = dimension & instrument constant
I = heating current in amperes
R = Resistance per unit length of the absorbing strip (𝛺Τ𝑐𝑚)
W = mean width of the absorbing strip
𝛼 = absorbing coefficient of the absorbing strip
Abbot Silver disc Pyrheliometer

BENT
 Eppley Pyrheliometer
• Temperature compensated 15 junction bismuth silver
thermopile mounted at the base of a brass tube

• Dry air bulb

• Receivers are concentric flat rings exposed in common

plane

• One ring is coated with magnesium oxide (high

reflectivity) to underside of this electrically insulated cold
junction is attached

• Other ring is coated with lamp black (high absorptivity) to

underside of this electrically insulated hot junction is
attached
 Concentrating collector
• Parabolic trough collector

• Mirror strip reflector

• Fresnel lens collector

• Flat plate collector with adjustable mirrors

• Compound parabolic concentrator

Line focusing collector: Parabolic trough
collector
• Length of reflector 3 to 5 m

• Width 1.5 to 2.4 m

• Reflector material- highly polished aluminium
or silvered glass or thin film of aluminized
plastic on a firm base.
• General orientation E-W, N-S
• N-S collects more energy but construction cost
is high & requires more space to avoid
shadowing due to slope.
 Mirror strip reflector
• Number of plane or slightly curved mirror strips
• Angles of individual mirrors to be adjusted
 Fresnel lens collector
• Refraction type of focusing collector

• Rectangular lens of 4.7 m length & 0.95 m width

• Made of acrylic plastic

• Rounded parabolic trough only serves as

container

• To be fully active it has to be continuously aligned

with the sun in two directions (i.e. along &
perpendicular to length)
 Point focusing collector
• Paraboloid dish collector focuses solar radiation at a
point.

• Diameter of dish 6.6 m

• Made of appx. 200 curved mirrors

• Absorber located at the focus is a cavity made of

zirconium-copper alloy with a black chrome selective
coating.

• Heat transport fluid flows into & out of the absorber

cavity through pipes bonded to the interior.

• Dish is rotated in two axes (i.e. up-down & left-right) Concentration ratio of 30 to 100 is
required for temperature range 300 0 C
• Concentration ratio is high hence used for very high to 500 0 C
temperature requirements.
Concentrating collector: Non-focusing/ Flat plate
collector with adjustable mirrors
• Flat plate facing due south

• Mirrors are connected to north & south edges

• When collectors are combined the space should be

maintained to avoid shading due to glass reflectors

• Angles of mirrors must be continuously adjusted

• Due to small increase in solar radiation they are

not widely used
 Compound parabolic collector (CPC)/ Winston collector
• Trough like arrangement of two parabolic collectors

• It is non-focusing type.

• solar radiations from many directions are reflected

towards the bottom of the trough.

• Large radiation including diffused radiation entering

the trough opening is collected.

• Provides moderately good concentration in E-W

direction without sun tracking adjustment.

• Temperature range 100 0 C to 150 0 C

Advantages of concentrating collector over flat plate
collector
• Reflecting surfaces require less material & are structurally simple
• Cost per unit area for solar collecting surface is less
• Absorber area of a concentrator system is smaller for same solar energy collection. (i.e. insolation intensity is
more)
• The area from which the heat is lost to the surroundings per unit of solar energy collecting area is less
• Insulation on the absorber is more concentrated
• The working fluid can attain more temperature for same solar energy collecting surface
• Due to small collector area, selective surface treatment or vacuum insulation to reduce the heat loss &
improve efficiency is economically feasible
• It can also be used for power generation when not used for heating hence total operating time per year
increases.
• Higher temperature range hence more amount of heat storage.
• Lower cost in cooling system & higher efficiency in cooling cycle
• Little or no anti-freeze is required to protect the absorber
Disadvantages of concentrating collector over flat plate
collector
• As diffused component can not be reflected by concentrator only beam radiations are collected.

• Costly sun tracking systems are required

• Additional maintenance is required to retain the quality of reflecting surface against dirt, weather,
oxidation, etc.

• Non-uniform flux on the absorber

• Additional optical losses such as reflectance loss & intercept loss. They introduce additional factors
in energy balance

• High initial cost