Lecture 1 General Introduction To Mechatronics

General Introduction to
Mechatronics
CODE: MEBC 1206
Number of credits: 6
Kamoleka, Masoud
MSc(Renewable Energy), UDSM
BSc(Electromechanical Eng), UDSM
1
MODULE STRUCTURE
1. Theory of Mechatronics
 Introduction to Mechatronics
 Basic definition-advantage and disadvantage
of automation
 Needs of Mechatronics
 General application of Mechatronics in

Manufacturing
2
MODULE STRUCTURE Cont…
2. SENSORS (TRANSDUCER)
 Terminology, performance characteristics
 Displacement, Position and Proximity
sensors
 Velocity and motion sensors
 Force/fluid pressure sensor
 Liquid flow and liquid level sensors
 Temperature and light sensors
 Selection of sensor
3
3. Actuators in Pneumatic and Hydraulics Systems

 Actuation systems
 Pneumatic and hydraulics systems
 Directional control valve
 Pressure control valve
 Cylinders
 Processes control valves
 Rotary actuators
4
4. ELECTICAL ACTUATION SYSTEMS
 Electrical systems
 Mechanical switches
 Solid state switches
 Principles of operation of solenoid
 Types, specification, and control of DC and

AC Motors
 Stepper motors
5
5. PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER (PLC):
Introduction to different types of PLC
6. FAULT FINDING:
Fault detection techniques, common hardware faults.
7. INTRODUCTION TO ROBOTICS:
Introduction, types and application of industrial robots.
6
References
[1] Bolton W. Mechatronics 3ed. Person Education Asia
[2] Bradley. A. et al, Mechatronics in Production and Processes
[3] Venkantaraman, C. R. Fundamentals of Mechatronics Sapn
7
Contacts Hour
Event Hours/Week
Lectrure 2
Practical 2
8
Model of Assessment
Assessment Marks
Theoretical Tests 20%
Practical Tests 20%
End of Semester Examination 60%
Total 100%
9
Mechatronics theory
 Consider the automated production line; such line may involve a
number of production processes that are all carried out
automatically in the correct sequence and in the correct way. All
these are example of integration of electronic control system,
and mechanical engineering
 Such control systems generally use microprocessors as

controllers and have electrical sensors extracting information
from the mechanical inputs and outputs via electrical actuators
to mechanical systems
 A microprocessor can be just considered as being essentially a

collections of logic gates and memory elements that are not
wired up as individual components but whose logic functions
are implemented by means of software
10
What is mechatronics?
Mechatronics is the combination
of mechanical engineering,
electronics engineering and
software engineering
Mechatronics is the synergistic

integration of mechanical
engineering, electronics, control
and computers; all integrated
through the design process to
create the useful product.
Mechatronics is at the
intersection between several
disciplinary areas, as represented
by these Venn diagrams
11
What is mechatronics?
 Mechatronics basically refers to mechanical electronic
systems and normally described as a synergistic combination
of mechanics, electrical, electronics, computer and control
which, when combined, make possible the generation of
simple, more economic, and reliable systems.
 Mechatronics is an amalgamation mechanics, electronics and

information technology intended to raise the intelligence
level and flexibility of products and devices
The term "mechatronics" was first assigned by Mr. Tetsuro Mori, a senior engineer of the
Japanese company Yaskawa, in 1970.
12
Advantage of Mechatronics
i. Improve productivity
 More goods produced per manufacturing floor area, machine installed
and human work force. In term of machines, mechatronics usually

increases mechanization thus yielding more machine hours per day
ii. Reduction of person accidents
13
Advantage of Mechatronics Cont…
iii. Better product quality
 Enhance product quality which improves competitive position and reduces
waste and reworks
 Improved competitive position naturally translates into higher volume

leading to added economic advantages
 Human inadequacies, such as dexterity, awareness, cognition, and other

manufacturing and processing industries variables such as temperature,
pressure, chemical composition flow etc, are not measurable by human
operators. These inadequacies and limitations are amongst two most
compiling forces that necessitated automation done by mechatronics
systems.
14
Disadvantage of Mechatronics
i. High investment cost: high cost of designing,

manufacturing and maintaining mechatronics system
ii. Vulnerability to downtime exists because of increasing

complexity of mechatronics system
iii. More management attention
15
Needs of Mechatronics
 Mechatronics responds to industry’s increasing demand
for engineers who are able to work across the boundaries
of narrow engineering disciplines to identify and use the
proper combination of technologies for optimum solutions
to today’s increasingly challenging engineering problems.
 Mechatronics covers a wide range of application areas

including consumer product design, instrumentation,
manufacturing methods, motion control systems,
computer integration, process and device control,
integration of functionality with embedded
microprocessor control, and the design of machines,
devices and systems possessing a degree of computer-
based intelligence.
16
MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS
Sensor, which responds to the quantity being measured by giving as its output a
signal which is related to the quantity
Example, a thermocouple is a temperature sensor. The input to the sensor is a

temperature and the output is an e.m.f, which is related to temperature value.
Physical Signal Value of

Variable Variable Signal quantity
Sensor Display
Conditioner
A signal conditioner takes the signal from the sensor and manipulates it into a condition
which is suitable for either display, or if not suitable, a control system will function
Example. The output from thermocouple is rather small. e.m.f and might be fed through
an amplifier to obtain a bigger signal. The amplifier is a signal conditioner.
A display system where the output from the signal conditioner is displayed. This might
for example, be a pointer moving across a scale or a digital readout.
17
Sensors (Transducer)
The main function of sensor is to
convert the physical variables into
signal variables, and these signal
variables can be processed further into
the measurement system
Physical Signal
Measurand
Variable variable
Sensor Display
Physical process
18
Sensors (Transducer) Cont…
In many cases it is necessary for the instrument to
provide a digital signal output so that it can interface
with a computer-based data acquisition or
communications system. If the sensor does not
inherently provide digital output, then the analog
output of the sensor is converted by an analog to
digital converter (ADC) as shown below,
Analog Analog
Physical Signal Digital
Signal Signal
Measurement variable variable
variable variable
Measurand Amplifier A/D Computer
Sensor
Converter Display
19
Types of transducer
Transducer can be classified as-
 Passive- where depend on additional of external power or
energy
 Active transducer- self power generating transducer
20
Types of transducer
 Another method of classification of transducer is from the
point of view of electrical parameter involved, namely,
 Capacitive transducer
 Inductive transducer
 Resistive transducer
 Magneto-electric transducer
 Photo-electric transducer
 Piezo-electric transducer
 Thermo-electric transducer
 Radioactive transducer
21
TERMINOLOGY AND PERFORMANCE
CHARACTERISTICS
22
SENSOR TERMINOLOGY
Range and span

 The range of a transducer defines the limits between
which the input can vary.
 The span is maximum value of the input minus the

minimum value.
Span = max input – min input
23
SENSOR TERMINOLOGY
Error
Error is the difference between the result of the measurement
and the true value of the quality being measured
Error = measured value – true value
If a measurement system gives a temperature reading of 25

°C when the actual temperature is 24 °C , then the error is 1
°C. If the actual temperature had been 26 °C then the error
would have been – 1 °C
A sensor might give a resistance change of 10.2Ω when the
true change should have been 10.5Ω. The error is – 0.3Ω
24
SENSOR TERMINOLOGY
Accuracy
Accuracy is the extent to which the value indicated

by measurement system might be wrong. It is thus the
summation of all possible errors that are likely to
occur. Accuracy is often expressed as the percentage
of the full range output or full-scale deflection. A
sensor might, for example, be specified as having an
accuracy of ±5% of full range output. Thus if the
range of the sensor was, say, 0 to 2000 C, then the
reading given can be expected to be within + or -100C
of the true reading.
25
SENSOR TERMINOLOGY
Sensitivity
 Sensitivity is the relationship indicating how much output
you get per unit input i.e. output/input for the example,
resistance thermometer may have a sensitivity of 0.5Ω/0C
26
SENSOR TERMINOLOGY
Hysteresis error
 Transducers can give different outputs from the same
value of quantity being measured according whether
that value has been reached by continuously
increasing change or a continuously decreasing
change. This effect is called hysteresis
The Fig shows an out put with the

hysteresis error as the maximum
difference in output for increasing
and decreasing values
27
Hysteresis and Hysteresis error
SENSOR TERMINOLOGY
Linearity and Non-Linearity Error

 In linear sensor and many transducer the input phenomena
has a linear relationship with the output signal. In most
sensors, this is desirable feature. When the relationship is
not linear, the conversion from the sensor output (eg.
voltage) to a calculated quantity (eg. force) becomes more
complex
28
SENSOR TERMINOLOGY
Linearity and Non-Linearity Error

 Few transducers, however, have a truly linear
relationship and thus errors occur as a result of the
assumption of linearity. The error here is considered
as a maximum difference from the straight line.
29
SENSOR TERMINOLOGY
Repeatability/reproducibility
 The terms repeatability and reproducibility of a transducer
are used to describe its ability to give the same output for
repeated applications of the same input value.
Max  Min. value given

Repeatabil ity   100%
Full range
30
SENSOR TERMINOLOGY
Stability
 The stability of a transducer is its ability to give the same
out put when used to measure a constant input over a
period of time
 The term DRIFT is often used to describe the change in

output that occur over time
 Zero drift is used for the changes that occur in output when
there is zero input
31
SENSOR TERMINOLOGY
Dead band/time or dead space

 The dead band or dead space of a transducer is the range
of input values for which there is no output.
 The dead time is the length of time from the application

of an input until the output begins to respond the change
32
SENSOR TERMINOLOGY
Resolution
 When the input varies continuously over the range, the output
signals for some sensors may change in small steps. Therefore,
we can define resolution as a smallest change in the input value
that will produce an observable change in the output. For
 example, if a sensor measures up to 10 inches of linear

displacements, and it outputs a number between 0 and 100,
then the resolution of the device is 0.1 inches
 And next example, for a sensors giving a digital output the

smallest change of input signal is 1bit. Thus, for a sensor
giving a data word of N bits i.e total of 2N bits, then the
resolution is generally expressed as 1/2N
33
Sensor characteristics
Static characteristics
are the values given when steady-state condition occur i.e.
the value given when the transducer has settled down after
having received some input.
Dynamic characteristic
Refer to the behavior between the time that the input value
changes, and the time that the value given by the transducer
settles down to the steady-state value.
34
Displacement, Position and Proximity
sensors
35
sensors
 Displacement sensors are concerned with the
measurement of amount by which some object has been
moved
 Position sensor is concerned with a determination of the

position of some object with reference to some reference
position.
 Proximity sensors are a form of position sensors and are

used to determine when an object has moved to within
some particular critical distance of the sensor
36
sensors Cont…
Displacement and position sensors can be
grouped into two basic types
 Contact sensors in which the measured object comes

in to mechanical contact with sensor
 Non-contacting, where there is no physical contact

between the measured object and the sensor
37
sensors Cont…
The following are examples of commonly used
displacement sensors
 Potentiometer sensor
 Strain-gauged element
 Capacitive element
 Differential transformer
 Inductive proximity switch
 Optical encoder
 Pneumatic sensors
 Hall-effect sensors
38
sensors Cont…
Potentiometer sensor
 Consists of resistance element with sliding contact
which can be moved over the length of the element
 Such element can be used for linear or rotary
displacements, the displacement being converted into
a potential different
 The rotary potential meter consists of a circular wire-
wound track or a film of conductive plastic over which
a rotatable sliding contact can be rotated
1
2
3
39
A rotary Potentiometer
sensors Cont…
Potentiometer sensor With a constant input voltage
Vs, between terminal 1 and 3,
the out put voltage Vo between
terminals 2 and 3 is a fraction
of the input voltage, the fraction
depending on the ratio of the
Vo R 23 resistance R23 between terminal


Vs R 13 2 and 3 compared with the total
resistance R13 between terminal
40
1 and 3.
sensors Cont…
Potentiometer sensor •If the track has a constant resistance
per unit length, i.e per unit angle, then
the output is proportional to the angle
through which the slider has rotated
•Hence an angular displacement can be

converted into a potential difference
•Errors due non-linearity of the track

tends to range from less than 0.1% to
1%.
•If the potentiometer has N turns, the

resolution as a percentage is 100/N
•The track resistance tends to range

41 from about 20Ω to 200kΩ
sensors Cont…
Potentiometer sensor The potential difference across the
load VL is only directly proportional
to Vo if the load resistance is infinite,
i.e VL α Vo
For finite loads, however the effect of

the load is to transform what was a
Slider linear relationship between output
voltage and angle into non-linear
relationship.
The resistance RL is in parallel with

the fraction x of the potentiometer
resistance Rp in the circuit as a
potential divider, as the illustrate
42 below
sensors Cont…
Combined resistance is
xRL R p
RL // xRP 
RL  xRP 
The total resistance across the source
voltage is thus
xRL R p
Slider Total resistance  R p 1  x  
RL  xRP 
Since the circuit is a potential divider
Therefore
VL xRL RP RL  xRP 

VS RP (1  x)  xRL RP RL  xRP 
VL x

43 Vs x( RP RL )(1  x)  1
sensors Cont…
VL x

Vs x( RP RL )(1  x)  1
If the load is of infinite resistance then we have

VL  xVS
Slider
Therefore, the error introduced by the load having a
finite resistance is
Error  xVS  VL
xVS
Error  xVS 
x( RP RL )(1  x)  1
Error  VS 
RP 2
RL
x  x3 
44
sensors Cont…
Example
 Find the non-linearity error with a potentiometer of
resistance 500Ω, when at a displacement of half its
maximum slider travel, which results from there
being a load of resistance 10kΩ. Given that, the
supply voltage is 4V.
Error  VS 
RP 2
RL
x  x3 
45
sensors Cont…
STRAIN-GAUGED ELEMENT
 Electrical resistance stain-gauges are made from fine high

resistance conductors like constantan (60%Cu+ 40%Ni) or
nichrome (80%Ni+20%Cr) in a form of metal wire , metal
foil strip, or a strip of semiconductor in a wafer-like and can
be stuck onto surface like a postage
 When subjected to strain, its resistance R changes, the

fractional change in resistsnce  R R being proportional to
the strain  R

R
R
 G
46 R
sensors Cont…
wire
Connection
leads
47 Metal wire
sensors Cont…
Metal
foil
Connection
leads
Metal foil
48
sensors Cont…
Where G, the constant of proportionality, is termed as the gauge factor,
since the strain is ratio
(change in length/original length)
Then the resistance change of a strain gauge is a measurement of the

change in length of the element to which the strain gauge is attached.
The gauge factor G, of metal wire or foil strain gauges with the metal
generally used is about 2.0
49
sensors Cont…
STRAIN-GAUGED ELEMENT When the flexible elements is bent or
deformed as a result of forces being
applied by a contact point being
displaced, then the electrical resistance
Strain gauges strain gauges mounted on the element
are strained and so give a resistance
Rings
change which can be monitored
The change in resistance is thus a
measure of the displacement or
Strain gauges
deformation of the flexible element.
Such arrangements are typically used
for linear displacements of the order of
1mm to 30mm and have a non-linearity
50 U-shapes error of about ±1% of full range.
sensors Cont…
Example.
 Consider an electrical resistance strain gauge
with a resistance of 100Ω and gauge factor of
2.0. What is the change in resistance of the
gauge when it is subjected to a strain of 0.001?
R  RG
51
sensors Cont…
Capacitive element sensor
 The capacitance C of a parallel plate capacitor is given by

 o r A
C
d
Where, εr = relative permittivity dielectric between plate
εo = permittivity constant of free space
A = Area overlap between the two plates
D =plate separation distance
52
sensors Cont…
Variable distance displacement sensor
Area
d
Fixed plate
For the displacement changing the plate separation, if the

separation d is increased by a displacement x then the capacitance
becomes
 o r A
C  C 
dx
53
sensors Cont…
Variable distance displacement sensor
Hence, the change in
capacitance C as a
Area fraction of the initial
d capacitance is given by
C d x d
 1 
Fixed plate
C dx 1  x d 
There is thus a non-linear relationship between the

change in capacitance C and the displacement x. this
non-linearity can be overcomed by using what termed as
a push-pull displacement sensor
54
sensors Cont…
Push-pull displacement sensor
 This has three plates with the upper pair forming one capacitor
and the lower pair form another capacitor
 The displacement moves the central plate between the two other
plates
 When the central plate moving down, we thus have
 o r A
Capacitor, C C1 
dx
Capacitor, C
 o r A
C2 
dx
55
sensors Cont…
Push-pull displacement sensor
 When C1 is in the one arm of an a.c bridge and C2 in the

other, then the resulting out-of balance voltage is
proportional to x
 Such a sensor is typically used for monitoring displacements
from a few millimeters to hundreds of millimeters
 Non-linearity and hysteresis errors are about of full range
56
sensors Cont…
Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
A rod driving Secondary 1 Primary Secondary 2

the sliding
core
AC input
Signal out,
Vo
57
sensors Cont…
Linear Variable Differential LVDT consists of three coils
Transformer (LVDT) symmetrically spaced along
insulated tube

The central coil is the
the sliding
core
primary coil and other two are
identical secondary coils which
AC input
are connected in series in such
away that their outputs oppose
each other
Signal out,
Vo A magnetic core is moved
through the central tube as a
results of the displacement
58
being monitored
sensors Cont…
When there is an
Linear Variable Differential alternating voltage input to
Transformer (LVDT) the primary coil, alternating
E.m.f are induced in the
A rod driving
the sliding
Secondary 1 Primary Secondary 2
secondary coils
core
With the magnetic core

AC input
central, the amounts of
magnetic material in each
coil are the same. Thus, the
Signal out, E.m.f induced in each coil
Vo
are the same. Since they are
so connected that their
outputs oppose each other,
59 the net result is zero output
sensors Cont…
Linear Variable Differential
Transformer (LVDT)

the sliding
core
However, when the core is
displaced from the central
position, there is a great amount
AC input
of magnetic core in one coil than
the other
Signal out,
Vo
60
sensors Cont…
Example more in secondary coil 2 than in coil 1, the result is that greater
e.m.f is induced in one coil than the other. There is then a net output
from the two coils . The E.m.f induced in the two secondary coils 1 and 2
can be represented by
V1  k1 sin t    and V2  k 2 sin t   
Where k1 , k 2 and  depend on the degree of coupling between the
primary and secondary coils for particular core position.  , is the phase
difference between the primary a.c voltage and secondary a.c voltages
Vout  V1  V2  k1  k2 sin t   
When the core is at central position k1  k 2 Vout  0
61
sensors Cont…
 When the core is more in 1 than in 2, we have k1  k 2 and
Vo  k1  k 2 sin t   
 when the core is more in 2 than in 1 we have k1  k 2 , consequence
of k1 being less than k2 is that there is a phase change of 180°
in output when the core moves from more in 1 than more in 2
Vout  k1  k 2 sin t     k 2  k1 sin t     
 the magnitude of the signal out voltage on either line indicate the
position of core
 near the center of motion, the change in voltage is proportional
to the displacement
62
sensors Cont…
 phase sensitive demodulator, with low pass filter is used to
convert the output into a D.C voltage which gives a unique
value for each displacement
63
sensors Cont…
 the circuit above can be used to produce a voltage that is

proportional to position
 two diodes convert a.c wave to half d.c wave
 the capacitor and resistor values can be selected to act as a
low pass filter
 the final capacitor should be large enough to smooth out the
voltage ripple on the output
64
sensors Cont…
 LVDTs have operating ranges from about ± 2mm to ±400mm

 LVDTs also have non-linearity errors of about ± 0.25%
 LVDTs are widely used as a primary transducer for monitoring
displacements
 The free end of the core may be spring loaded for contact with
the surface being monitored
65
sensors Cont…
Optical encoder
 A encoder is device that provides a digital output as a result of a linear
or angular displacement
 The encoder contains an optical disc with fine window etched into it.
 The light from emitter passes through the openings in the disc to
detectors
 As the encoder shaft is rotated the light beams are broken
 When the disc is rotated, a pulsed output is produced by the sensor
with the number of pulses being proportional to the angle through
which the disc rotates
 Thus the angular position of the disc, and hence the shaft rotating it, can
be determined by the number of pulses produced from some datum
position
66
sensors Cont…
There are two fundamental types of encoders

 Incremental encoder
 Absolute encoder
67
sensors Cont…
Incremental encoder
 An incremental encoder will output two pulses that can be used
to determine displacement.
 Logic circuit or software is used to determine the direction of
rotation, and count pulses to determine the displacement
 Also velocity can be determined by measuring the time between
pulse
68
sensors Cont…
Incremental encoder
LEDs Light
Sensor
The inner track has just one hole and is used to locate the “home”
position of the disc
The other two tracks have a series of equally spaced holes that go
completely round the disc but with the holes in the middle track
offset from the holes in the outer track by one-half the width of a
hole. This offset enables the direction of the rotation to be
69 determined
sensors Cont…
 The resolution is determined by the number of slots on the

disc, with 60 slots occurring with 1 revolution then, since 1
revolution is a rotation of 360° , the resolution is 360 60  6
0 0
70
sensors Cont…
Absolute encoder
 Absolute encoder measures the position of the shaft for a single
rotation. The same shaft angle will produce the same reading
 The output is normally binary code or grey code of several digits, each
number representing a particular angular position
 The rotating disc has three concentric circles of slots and three sensors
to detect the light pulses
 The slots are arranged in such away that the sequential output from the
sensors is a number in the binary code
 Typical encoders tend to have up to 10 or 12 tracks
 The number of bits in the binary number will be equal to the number of
tracks, thus with 10 tracks there will be 10 bits and so the number of
positions that can be detected is 210 , i.e 1024, a resolution of 360 1024
0
71
sensors Cont…
Absolute encoder
LEDs Sensors
000 111
001 110
010 101
011
100
72
sensors Cont…
Hall effect sensor
 When a beam of charged particles passes through
magnetic field, force act on the particles and the beam
deflected from its straight line path.
 A current flowing in a conductor is like a beam of
moving charges and thus can be deflected by a magnetic
field.
 This effect was discovered by Edwin Hall in 1879 and is
called the Hall Effect.
73
sensors Cont…
 Consider the fig below, Elections moving in a conductive plate with
magnetic field applied at right angles to the plane of the plate.
Magnetic field
Positively
Negatively
Charged
Charged
Current
P.d produced by
deflection of Current
electrons

74
sensors Cont…
 As a consequence of the magnetic field, the moving electors
are deflected to one side of the plate and thus that side
becomes negatively charges while the opposite side becomes
positively charges since the electrons are directed away from
it.
 This charge separation produces an electric field in the
material.
 The charge separation continues until the forces on the
charges particles from the electric field just balance the
forces produced by the magnetic field
75
sensors Cont…
The transverse potential difference V given by V  K H BI

t
Where
B = Magnetic flux density at the right angles to the plane
I = the current through it
t = the plane thickness
K = a constant called the Hall coefficient.
H
76
sensors Cont…
There are two basic forms of Hall Effect sensors
 Linear Hall effect sensor
Where the output varies in a reasonably linear manner with the
magnetic Flux density.
Output
(V)
- 0 +
Flux density
77
sensors Cont…
 Threshold Hall effect sensor

Where the output shows a sharp drop at a particular
magnetic flux density.
Output
(V)
Flux
density
78
sensors Cont…
Advantages of Hall Effect sensor.
 Being able operation as switches which can be operates to 100 KHz
repetition rate.
 Cost less than electromechanical switch
 Hall Effect sensor is immune to environmental contaminants
and can be used under severe service condition.
 Such sensors can be used as position, displacement and
proximity sensor if the object being sensed is fitted with a
small permanent magnet
79
sensors Cont…
Advantages of Hall Effect sensor.
Ground As an illustration, such sensor can be
Supply Output Hall
used to determine the level of fuel in
sensor an automobile fuel tank
Magnet
A magnet is attached to a float and

as the level of fuel changes so the
float distance from the Hall sensor
Float changes. The result is a Hall voltage
output which is a measure of
distance of the float from the sensor
and hence the level fuel in the tank.
80
VELOCITY AND MOTION SENSOR
Tachogenerator
 Tachogenerator is used to measure angular velocity,
 One form of Tachogenerator is the variable reluctance
tachogenerator consists of a Toothed wheel of ferromagnetic
material which is attached to the rotating shaft as fig below shows.
Pick-up coil
Toothe wheel Out
81
A pick- up coil is wound an a permanent

magnet
As the wheel rotate, so the teeth move
Pick-up coil past the coil and the air gap between the
coil and the ferromagnetic material
changes, we have a magnetic circuit with
an air gap which periodically changes.
Toothe wheel Out Thus the flux linked by pick – up coil
changes.
The resulting cyclic change in the flux
linked produces an alternating e.m. f in
the coil.
82
 If the wheel contains teeth and rotates with an angular velocity ,

then the flux change with time is given by
  0  a cos nt
Where, 0  Mean value o the flux

a  The amplitude of the flux variation
 The induced e.m.f, e and the N turns of the pick up coli is thus,
d
  N o   a cos nt 
d
e  N
dt dt
 Na n sin nt
83
 Let, the maximum value of the induced e.m.f. E max to be Na n

and is a measure of angular velocity
 Therefore, e  Emax sin nt
 Instead of using the maximum value of the e.m.f as a measure
of the angular, a pulse – shaping signal conditioner can be
used to transform the output in a sequence of pulses which
can be counted by a counter ,the number counted in a
particular time internal being a measure of the angular
velocity.
84
LIQUID LEVEL
 Liquid level in a vessel can be measured directly by
monitoring the position of the liquid surface or indirectly by
measuring some variable related to the height.
 Direct methods can involve floats; indirect methods include
the monitoring of the weight of the vessel by, perhaps, load
cells. The weight of the liquid is Ahg
A Cross sectional area of the vessel,

h Height of liquid
 Its density
g Acceleration due to gravity
 Thus, changes in the height of liquid gives weight changes.
85
LIQUID LEVEL
 More commonly, indirect methods involve the measurement

of pressure at some point in the liquid , the pressure due to a
column of liquid of height h being hg
Where   the liquid density
86
LIQUID LEVEL
Direct method of
FLOATS monitoring the level of
Potentiometer liquid in a vessel is by
monitoring the level of
liquid in a vessel is by
monitoring the
Float
movement of a float as
Liquid level
Liquid
fig. below illustrates
Tank
this with a simple float
system.
A simple float can be coupled to same suitable displacement
transducer to produce an electrical signal proportional to the
87
liquid level
TEMPERATURE
SENSOR  Thermistors are small pieces of
material made from mixture of
Thermistors. metal oxides, such as those of
chromium, cobalt, iron, manganese
and nickel. These are
Resistance
semiconductors.
8
 The material is formed into various
6 forms of element such as beads,
discs and rods.
4  The resistance of conventional
metal-oxide thermistors decreases in
2 a very non-linear manner with
increase in temperature, as
0 40 120 160
illustrated in fig y below.
80
Temperature C
Fig. y. Variation of resistance with temperature for a typical thermistor.
88
TEMPERATURE SENSOR
Thermistors.
 Such thermistors having negative temperature coefficients

(NTC). Positive temperature coefficient (PTC) thermistors
are however available.
 The change in resistance per degree change in temperature is
considerably larger than that which occurs with metals.
 The resistance-temperature relationship for a thermistor can
be described by an equation of the form  t
Rt  Ke
Where:
Rt  The resistance at temperature t

K and  are constants
89
THERMISTORS
 Like RTDs, thermistors (see Figure) are
semiconductor temperature sensor that exhibit
changes in internal resistance proportional to
changes in temperature. Thermistors are made from
mixtures of metal oxides, such as oxides of cobalt,
chromium, nickel, manganese, iron, and titanium.
These semiconductor materials exhibit a
temperature-versus-resistance behaviour that is
opposite of the behaviour of RTD conducting
materials. As the temperature increases, the
resistance of a thermistor decreases; therefore, a
thermistor is said to have a negative temperature
coefficient. Although most thermistors have negative
coefficients, some do have positive temperature
coefficients.
Figure . Different types of thermistors.
90
TEMPERATURE SENSOR
Thermistors.
Thermistors have many advantages when compared
with other temperature Sensors.
 They are nigged and can be very small, so enabling
temperatures to be monitored at virtually point.
 Because of their small size they respond very rapidly to
changes in temperature. They give very large changes in
resistance per degree change in temperature.
Disadvantage
 Non-linearity
91
TEMPERATURE SENSOR
Thermo diodes
 A junction semiconductor diode is widely used as a temperature sensor.
 When the temperature of doped semiconductors changes, the mobility of
their charge carriers changes and this affects the rate at which electrons
and hole can diffuse across a p-n junction.
 Thus when a p-n junction has a potential difference V across it, the
current I through the junction is a function of the temperature, being
given by I  I o e eV / kT
Where: - T is the temperature on the Kelvin scale
e = the change on electron
k and Io are constants
Taking logarithms , V  kTe ln  I I  1
o
Thus, for a constant current, we haveV proportional to the temperature on

the Kelvin scale and so a measurement of the potential difference across a
diode at constant current can be used as a measure of the temperature
92
Thermoelectric effect sensors (thermocouples)
Fig 4: gas thermometer

When two wires composed of dissimilar metals are joined at both ends and one of the ends is heated, a
continuous current flows in the “thermoelectric” circuit. Thomas Seebeck made this discovery in
1821. This thermoelectric circuit is shown in Figure 4(a). If this circuit is broken at the center, as
shown in Figure 4(b), the new open circuit voltage (known as “the Seebeck voltage”) is a function of
the junction temperature and the compositions of the two metals.
93
Thermoelectric effect sensors
(thermocouples)
 Thermoelectric effect sensors rely on the physical principle that,
when any two different metals are connected together, an e.m.f.,
which is a function of the temperature, is generated at the
junction between the metals. The general form of this
relationship is:
e = a1T+ a2T2 + a3T3 +…….+anTn ……(1)
Where, e = the e.m.f generated and

T = the absolute temperature.
94
 This is clearly non-linear, which is inconvenient for
measurement applications. Fortunately, for certain pairs of
materials, the terms involving squared and higher powers of T
(a2T2, a3T3 etc.) are approximately zero and the e.m.f.–
temperature relationship is approximately linear according to:
e ≈a1T …….(2)
Wires of such pairs of materials are connected together at one

end, and in this form are known as thermocouples.
Thermocouples are a very important class of device as they provide the

most commonly used method of measuring temperatures in industry.
95
(thermocouples)
Thermocouples are manufactured from various
combinations of
 the base metals copper and iron,
 the base-metal alloys of alumel (Ni/Mn/Al/Si), chromel (Ni/Cr), constantan
(Cu/Ni), nicrosil (Ni/Cr/Si) and nisil (Ni/Si/Mn),
 the noble metals platinum and tungsten, and
 The noble-metal alloys of platinum/rhodium and tungsten/rhenium.
96
(thermocouples)
 Only certain combinations of these are used as thermocouples and each
standard combination is known by an internationally recognized type letter,
for instance type K is chromel–alumel. The e.m.f.–temperature
characteristics for some of these standard thermocouples are shown in Figure
5: these show reasonable linearity over at least part of their temperature-
measuring ranges.
97
Fig. 5. E.m.f. temperature characteristics for some standard thermocouple materials.
(thermocouples)
98
(thermocouples)
 Thermoelectric effect sensors rely on the physical principle that,
when any two different metals are connected together, an e.m.f.,
which is a function of the temperature, is generated at the
junction between the metals. The general form of this
relationship is:
e = a1T+ a2T2 + a3T3 +…….+anTn ……(1)
Where, e = the e.m.f generated and

T = the absolute temperature.
99
 This is clearly non-linear, which is inconvenient for
measurement applications. Fortunately, for certain pairs of
materials, the terms involving squared and higher powers of T
(a2T2, a3T3 etc.) are approximately zero and the e.m.f.–
temperature relationship is approximately linear according to:
e ≈a1T …….(2)
Wires of such pairs of materials are connected together at one

end, and in this form are known as thermocouples.
Thermocouples are a very important class of device as they provide the

most commonly used method of measuring temperatures in industry.
100
LIQUID FLOW
 The traditional method of measuring the flow rate of liquid

involves devices based on the measurement of pressure drop
occurring when the fluid flows through a constriction.
a
b
V1  The fluid velocity at point a

P1  The pressure at point a
A1  Cross section area of the tube prior to the constriction
101
LIQUID FLOW V2 Thevelocity at point b
P2  The pressure at point b
A2 The area of cross section at point b

  Fluid density
a
b
From Bernoulli’s equations
2
V1 P1 V22 P2
  
2 g g 2 g g
Since the mass flow rate of the liquid through the tube prior to the constriction must equal that
passing through the tube at the constriction, We have A1V1  A2V2 
However, the quantity Q of liquid passing through the tube per second is A1V1  A2V2 , hence
A2 2P1  P2 
Q Thus the quantity of fluid following the pipe per second is
1   A2 A1  
2
proportional to (Pressure different)
•The measurements of the pressure difference can thus
be used to give a measure of the rate of flow.
•There are many devices based on this principle, and the
following example of the Orifice plate is probably one of
102 the most common.
TURBINE METER
 The turbine flowmeter (Figure ) consists of a
multi-bladed rotor that is supported
centrally in the pipe along which the flow
occurs.
 The rotor rotates as a result of the fluid
flow, the angular velocity being
approximately proportional to the flow
rate.
 The rate of revolution of the rotor can be
determined by attaching a small
permanent magnet to one of the blades
and using a pick-up coil.
 An induced e.m.f pulse is produced in the
coil every time the magnet passes it.
 The pulses are counted and so the number
of revolutions of the rotor can be
determined.
  with an accuracy
The meter is expensive,
of typically about ±0.1%.
103
Light sensor
Photodiode
 Photodiode are semiconductor junction diodes which are connected into

a circuit in reverse bias, so giving a very high resistance
 When light falls on the junction the diode resistance drops and the
current in the circuit rises
 Example, the current in the absence of light with a reverse bias of 3V
might be 25μA and when illustrated by 2500lumens/m2 the current rises
to 375μA.
 The resistance of the device with no light is 3 25 10   120k and with
6
light is 3 375 10   8k

6
 A photodiode can thus be used as a variable resistance device controlled

by the light incident on it
 Photodiodes have a very fast response to light
104
Light sensor
Phototransistor
 Have light-sensitive
collector-base p-n junction
 When there is no incident
light, there is very small
collector-to-emitter
current
 When the light is incident, a
base current is produced
that is directly proportional
to the light intensity
 This leads to the production
of a collector current which
is then a measure of the
light intensity
105
Light sensor
Photo resistor
 Photo resistors has a resistance which depends on the intensity

of the light falling on it
 The cadmium sulphide photo resistor is most responsive to light
having wave lengths shorter than about 515nm and the
cadmium selinide photo resistor for wavelengths less than about
700nm
106
Selection of sensors
In selecting a sensor for a particular application there are number of
factors that need to be considered
 The nature of measurement required

 The nature of the output required from the sensor, this
determining the signal conditioning requirements in order to
give suitable output signals from the measurement
 Then possible sensors can be identified, taking into account
such factor as their range, accuracy, linearity, speed of
response, reliability, maintainability, life span, power supply
requirements, ruggedness, availability and cost
107
Questions
108

Lecture 1 General Introduction To Mechatronics

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General Introduction to

CODE: MEBC 1206

 General application of Mechatronics in

3. Actuators in Pneumatic and Hydraulics Systems

 Solid state switches

 Principles of operation of solenoid

 Types, specification, and control of DC and

[2] Bradley. A. et al, Mechatronics in Production and Processes

[3] Venkantaraman, C. R. Fundamentals of Mechatronics Sapn

 Such control systems generally use microprocessors as

 A microprocessor can be just considered as being essentially a

Mechatronics is the synergistic

 Mechatronics is an amalgamation mechanics, electronics and

and human work force. In term of machines, mechatronics usually

ii. Reduction of person accidents

 Improved competitive position naturally translates into higher volume

 Human inadequacies, such as dexterity, awareness, cognition, and other

i. High investment cost: high cost of designing,

ii. Vulnerability to downtime exists because of increasing

iii. More management attention

 Mechatronics covers a wide range of application areas

Example, a thermocouple is a temperature sensor. The input to the sensor is a

Physical Signal Value of

 Active transducer- self power generating transducer

Range and span

 The span is maximum value of the input minus the

Span = max input – min input

If a measurement system gives a temperature reading of 25

Accuracy is the extent to which the value indicated

The Fig shows an out put with the

Linearity and Non-Linearity Error

Linearity and Non-Linearity Error

Max  Min. value given

 The term DRIFT is often used to describe the change in

Dead band/time or dead space

 The dead time is the length of time from the application

 example, if a sensor measures up to 10 inches of linear

 And next example, for a sensors giving a digital output the

 Position sensor is concerned with a determination of the

 Proximity sensors are a form of position sensors and are

 Contact sensors in which the measured object comes

 Non-contacting, where there is no physical contact

Vo R 23 resistance R23 between terminal

•Hence an angular displacement can be

•Errors due non-linearity of the track

•If the potentiometer has N turns, the

•The track resistance tends to range

For finite loads, however the effect of

The resistance RL is in parallel with

If the load is of infinite resistance then we have

 Electrical resistance stain-gauges are made from fine high

 When subjected to strain, its resistance R changes, the

Then the resistance change of a strain gauge is a measurement of the

 The capacitance C of a parallel plate capacitor is given by

For the displacement changing the plate separation, if the

There is thus a non-linear relationship between the

 When C1 is in the one arm of an a.c bridge and C2 in the

A rod driving Secondary 1 Primary Secondary 2

A rod driving Secondary 1 Primary Secondary 2

With the magnetic core

A rod driving Secondary 1 Primary Secondary 2

 the circuit above can be used to produce a voltage that is