Signal Processing

Circuits
ANJU MATHEW B150524EE
ANJUSREE N P B150120EE
ARBASH NAZEER B150035EE
ASWATHY PN B150199EE
ATHIRA R CHANDRAN B150918EE
ATHULYA S K B150065EE
AVVARI DHANUSH B151015EE
Introduction

● Various instrumentation circuits will be discussed.

● Analog to Digital conversion
● Modulation and Demodulation Circuits
● Clipping and Clamping Circuits
 Analog to Digital Converters

● An electronic integrated circuit which converts a

signal from analog (continuous) to digital (discrete)
form
● Provides a link between the analog world of
transducers and the digital world of signal
processing and data handling
Analog to Digital Conversion

Two main steps of process

1.Sampling and Holding
2.Quantization and Encoding
FLASH ADC

● Consists of a series of
comparators, each one
comparing the input signal to a
unique reference voltage.
● The comparator outputs
connect to the inputs of a
priority encoder circuit, which
produces a binary output
FLASH ADC

● Vin value lies between two

comparators
● Resolution ∆V=Vref/2^N
● N= Encoder Output bits
● Comparators => 2N-1
SUCCESSIVE APPROXIMATION ADC

● A Successive
Approximation Register
(SAR) is used in the circuit
● This register counts by
trying all values of bits
starting with the MSB and
finishing at the LSB.
SUCCESSIVE APPROXIMATION ADC

● DAC = digital-to-analog
converter
● EOC = end of conversion
● SAR = successive
approximation register
● S/H = sample and hold
circuit
● Vin = input voltage
● Vref = reference voltage
DUAL SLOPE ADC
DUAL SLOPE ADC

● VS=-VA/RC×t1
● Vref/RC×t2=-VA/RC×t1
● t2=-t1×VA/Vref
● VA=-Vref×t1/t2
COMPARISON BETWEEN DIFFERENT ADCs
Modulation Circuits
● In electronics and telecommunications, modulation is the
process of varying one or more properties of a periodic
waveform, called the carrier signal, with a modulating signal
that typically contains information to be transmitted.
● In Instrumentation system, it is required to convert a.c. signals
to d.c. signals and vice versa. The conversion from AC to DC is
a form of Amplitude Modulation. The reverse process is called
demodulation.
Amplitude Modulation

● Modulation means to “change” or to “modify”

The interest in amplitude modulation signals in measurement systems is on

account of two reasons:
● Physical data that are to be measured processed and interpreted are
usually amplitude modulated.
● Dynamic measurements are easily done with such modulation.
Two parts to Modulation

● Carrier: This is the medium that carries the information or intelligence

and
● Signal: The signal is the information or intelligence to be carried.

In amplitude modulation, the signal or the information modulates the

amplitude of the carrier. It is the modification of the amplitude of the
carrier in proportion to the amplitude of the modualting signals.
Carrier Amplifiers

● In order to amplify signals AC amplifiers are better than DC amplifiers

due to drift in latter.
● But AC amplifiers can’t amplify low frequency or slow varying dynamic
inputs due to low frequency cut offs.
● For example a 20Hz input wave can be modulated with a 3000Hz
carrier signal.
● This can also help in noise reduction.
Modulation Circuits

● The process of modulation is as shown in the block diagram in

the next slide.
● The carrier frequency should be atleast 5 to 10 times the
highest harmonic of the input voltage. Electromechanical
choppers are widely used as modulators.
● The previous figure shows an electromechanical chopper to
convert DC signal to an AC signal, in order to provide isolation
between the input and the output circuitry, a transformer is
used.
● Electromechanical choppers cannot be used for high
frequencies. Solid state devices can be used for the latter as is
shown in the next slide.
Demodulation :

● Demodulation is extracting the original information-bearing signal from a

carrier wave.
● A Demodulator is an electronic circuit (or computer program in a software
- defined radio) that is used to recover the information content from the
modulated carrier wave.
● Modulation is the process of influencing data information on the carrier,
while Demodulation is the recovery of original information at the distant
end from the carrier.
● Modem is the equipment that performs both Modulation and
Demodulation.
Balanced Demodulator:
● When there is zero input signal , only the oscillator signal drives
the diodes. The capacitors are thus charged to the peak value of
oscillator signal. Since the voltages across capacitors are of opposite
polarity , the output voltage is zero for zero input. So called balanced
modulator.
● Suppose now the input signal is positive going voltage, the first
half cycle of input signal is in phase with oscillator signal. Due to this
the upper loop will be aiding and lower loop will be opposing. Means
voltage across upper capacitor is greater than lower capacitor .output
voltage is the difference between capacitor voltages. Hence will be
positive.
Input dc signals to demodulator:
 In majority of measurement systems, a Phase sensitive demodulation
is required, if the modulation is performed earlier so as to recover the
algebraic sign of the original direction. This is essential because it becomes
imperative to know the gain of the input signal. ex: if the output of a
displacement transducer is fed to modulator and if a non phase
demodulator were used then the information obtained would be the
magnitude of displacement and not its direction. Therefore to know
whether displacement increased or decreased , PSD should be used.
In order to recover the sign of the original information, reference
signal used to drive the modulator must be used in demodulator also.
 In modulators and demodulators, electromechanical choppers are
used. Electronic choppers may be used for proper synchronisation. In this
circuit, the oscillator signal enters the input modulator and is modulated by
the input dc signal. The output of the modulator is a signal of the same
frequency as that of the oscillator. The peak value of this modulator output
is proportional to the magnitude of dc input.
The modulator input is amplified by an a.c. amplifier ,this output is
demodulated to recover the original d.c. signal.
At the output of the demodulator, a low-pass filter has to be
introduced to eliminate the noise from the output.
Clipping Circuits

● Clipping circuit is a wave shaping circuit, and is used either to remove

or clip a portion of the applied wave in order to control the shape of

output waveform.
● Classified as Diode clippers and Transistor clippers

● Basic components for Diode clipper - Diode, resistor and input voltage

source
● Based on configuration, there are two general categories of diode
Positive diode clipper
Negative diode clipper
● In practical diode, the breakdown voltage will exist (0.7 for Silicon and
0.3 for Germanium).So the resultant waveform will be as given below.
 Biased Positive and Negative Clippers

Series Negative
Clipper with Positive Vr

Series Negative
Clipper With Negative Vr
Series Positive Clipper with Negative Vr

Series Positive Clipper with Positive Vr

 Shunt Negative Clipper with Negative Vr

Shunt Positive Clipper with Positive Vr

COMBINATION CLIPPER
APPLICATIONS OF CLIPPING CIRCUITS

● Used in FM transmitters to reduce noise

● To limit the voltage input to a device
● To modify an existing waveform to the desired output
 Drawbacks of Series and Shunt Diode Clipper

● In series clippers, when the diode is in ‘OFF’ position, there will

be no transmission of the input signal to output. But in the case of
high-frequency signals transmission occurs through diode
capacitance which is undesirable. This is the drawback of using
the diode as a series element in such clippers.
● In shunt clippers, when the diode is in the ‘off condition,
transmission of input signal should take place to output. But in
the case of high-frequency input signals, diode capacitance
affects the circuit operation adversely and the signal gets
attenuated (that is, it passes through diode capacitance to
ground).
Clamping

● A clamper is an electronic circuit that changes the DC level of a

signal to the desired level without changing the shape of the applied
signal.
● The dc component is simply added to the input signal or subtracted
from the input signal. A clamper circuit adds the positive dc
component to the input signal to push it to the positive side.
Similarly, a clamper circuit adds the negative dc component to the
input signal to push it to the negative side.
● The network must have a capacitor, a diode, and a resistive
element, but it can also employ an independent dc supply to
introduce an additional shift.

● The magnitude of R and C must be chosen such that the time

constant (RC) is large enough to ensure that the voltage across
the capacitor does not discharge significantly during the interval
the diode is nonconducting.
A zero level clamper.
During the interval 0 to T/2 the network will appear as shown in figure, with
the diode in the “on” state effectively “shorting out” the effect of the resistor
R. The resulting RC time constant is so small (R determined by the inherent
resistance of the network) that the capacitor will charge to V volts very
quickly. During this interval the output voltage is directly across the short
circuit and vo = 0 V.
For the second cycle, the network will appear as shown in figure.Now that R
is back in the network the time constant determined by the RC product is
sufficiently large to establish a discharge period much greater than the
period T/2 ->T, and it can be assumed on an approximate basis that the
capacitor holds onto all its charge and, therefore, voltage (since V=Q/C)
during this period.
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law around the
input loop will result in
-V -V -vo = 0
Which gives, vo = -2V

The output signal is clamped to 0 V for the

interval 0 to T/2 but maintains the same total
swing (2V) as the input.
References
1)wikipedia
2)https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262692228_demodulation
3)https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0957-0233/25/7/075010
4)Clamping: Robert Boylestad, “Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory”.
5)Clipping: http://www.circuitstoday.com/diode-clippers
6)Clipping:https://www.elprocus.com/types-of-clipper-and-clamper-
circuits-and-applications/
7)http://www.circuitstoday.com/diode-clippers