INTRODUCTION TO

NETWORKS
• Concepts of Computer Networks
• Network Topologies
• Internetworking Devices
• OSI Model
 Networking
• The generic term node or host refers to any
device on a network
• Data transfer rate The speed with which
data is moved from one place on a network
to another
• Data transfer rate is a key issue in computer
networks
NETWORK CONCEPTS
• Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs)
– Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a large computer network that spans a
metropolitan area or campus.

– Its geographic scope falls between a WAN and LAN. MANs provide Internet connectivity
for LANs in a metropolitan region, and connect them to wider area networks like the
Internet.

– Provide connectivity over areas such as a city, a campus

– A MAN is optimized for a larger geographical area than a LAN, ranging from several
blocks of buildings to entire cities.

– MANs can also depend on communications channels of moderate-to-high data rates.

– A MAN might be owned and operated by a single organization, but it usually will be used
by many individuals and organizations.

– MANs might also be owned and operated as public utilities. They will often provide means
for inter networking of local networks.
 Types of Networks:WAN

Local-area networks connected across a distance to create a wide-area network

 Networking
• Computer networks have opened up an entire
frontier in the world of computing called the
client/server model
• File server A computer that
stores and manages files for
multiple users on a network

• Web server A computer

dedicated to responding to
requests (from the browser
client) for web pages

Client/Server interaction
Network Architecture
 Network Topologies
• A topology refers to the manner in which the cable is run
to individual workstations on the network.
– the configurations formed by the connections between
devices on a local area network (LAN) or between two
or more LANs
• Network topologies:
1. bus
2. star
3. Ring
4. Tree or hierarchical
5. Mesh
6. Hybrid
 Types of Networks
• Various configurations, called topologies, have
been used to administer LANs
– Ring topology A configuration that connects all nodes
in a closed loop on which messages travel in one
direction
– Star topology A configuration that centers around one
node to which all others are connected and through
which all messages are sent
– Bus topology All nodes are connected to a single
communication line that carries messages in both
directions
Types of Networks Topologies

• A bus technology called Ethernet has become the industry

standard for local-area networks
 Bus Topology
• A bus topology connects each computer (node) to a single segment
trunk.
– A ‘trunk’ is a communication line, typically coax cable, that is referred to
as the ‘bus.’ The signal travels from one end of the bus to the other.
– A terminator is required at each end to absorb the signal so it does not
reflect back across the bus.
• In a bus topology, signals are broadcast to all stations. Each
computer checks the address on the signal (data frame) as it passes
along the bus. If the signal’s address matches that of the computer, the
computer processes the signal. If the address doesn’t match, the
computer takes no action and the signal travels on down the bus.
• Only one computer can ‘talk’ on a network at a time. A media
access method (protocol) called CSMA/CD is used to handle the
collisions that occur when two signals are placed on the wire at the
same time.
• The bus topology is passive. In other words, the computers on the bus
simply ‘listen’ for a signal; they are not responsible for moving the
signal along.
• A bus topology is normally implemented with coaxial cable.
• Advantages of bus topology:
– Easy to implement and extend
– Well suited for temporary networks that must be set up
in a hurry
– Typically the cheapest topology to implement
– Failure of one station does not affect others
• Disadvantages of bus topology:
– Difficult to administer/troubleshoot
– Limited cable length and number of stations
– A cable break can disable the entire network; no
redundancy
– Maintenance costs may be higher in the long run
– Performance degrades as additional computers are
added
 Ring Topology
• A ring topology consists of a set
of stations connected serially
by cable.
• It’s a circle or ring of computers.
• There are no terminated ends to
the cable;
• Signal travels around the circle
in a clockwise (or anticlockwise)
direction.

• Under the ring concept, a signal is transferred sequentially via a "token"

from one station to the next.
• When a station wants to transmit, it "grabs" the token, attaches data and an
address to it, and then sends it around the ring.
• The token travels along the ring until it reaches the destination address.
• The receiving computer acknowledges receipt with a return message to the
sender. The sender then releases the token for use by another computer.
• Each station on the ring has equal access but only one station can talk
at a time.
 Ring Topology
• In contrast to the ‘passive’ topology of the bus, the ring employs
an ‘active’ topology. Each station repeats or ’boosts’ the signal
before passing it on to the next station.
• Rings are normally implemented using twisted pair or fiber-
optic cable
• Advantages of ring topology:
– Growth of system has minimal impact on performance
– All stations have equal access
• Disadvantages of ring topology:
– Most expensive topology
– Failure of one computer may impact others
– Complex
 Star Topology
• All of the stations in a star topology are
connected to a central unit called a
hub.
– The hub offers a common connection
for all stations on the network.
– Each station has its own direct cable
connection to the hub.
– In most cases, this means more cable
is required than for a bus topology.
– Adding or moving computers is a
relatively easy task; simply plug them
into a cable outlet on the wall.

• If a cable is cut, it only affects the computer that was attached to it.
• This eliminates the single point of failure problem associated with the bus
topology.
• Star topologies are normally implemented using twisted pair cable,
specifically unshielded twisted pair (UTP).
• Most common form of network topology currently in use.
 Star Topology

• Advantages of star topology:

– Easy to add new stations
– Easy to monitor and troubleshoot
– Can accommodate different wiring
• Disadvantages of star topology:
– Failure of hub cripples attached stations
– More cable required (more expensive to wire a
building for networking)
A Hierarchical Hub/Tree Network

Hub

End node

Hub

Hub Hub Hub

A Hub / Tree Network

 Hierarchical/Tree Network

• In hub or tree network, the wires that are used to connect different
nodes are collapsed into a central unit, called hub.
• Hub does not perform switching function.
• It consists of repeaters that retransmitted all the signals from
nodes to all other nodes in the same way.
• It is divided into different levels connected with the help of
twisted pair, coaxial cable or fiber optics
• In a tree structure top level contains parent node (root node),
which is connected with the child nodes in the second level of
hierarchy with point-to-point link. The second level nodes are
connected to the third level nodes, which in turn are connected to
the fourth level nodes and so on.
 Advantages of hierarchical topology
• The hierarchical topology is generally supported by
most hardware and software.
• In the hierarchical topology, data is received by all the
nodes efficiently because of point-to-point link.

Disadvantages of hierarchical topology

• In the hierarchical topology, when the root node

fails, the whole network crashes.
• The hierarchical topology is difficult to configure.
 Mesh Topology
• In mesh topology, each
computer is connected to every
other computer in point-to-
point mode. For example, if we
have four computers, we must
have six links. If we have n
computers, we must have n(n-
1)/2 links.
• A message can take several
possible paths to reach a
destination.
 Advantages of mesh topology
• Message delivery is more reliable.
• Network congestion is minimum due to
large number of links.

Disadvantages
• It is very expensive to implement.
• It is very difficult to configure and install.
 Hybrid Topology
• The hybrid topology is the combination of multiple
topologies, used for constructing a single large topology.
• The hybrid topology is created when two different
network topologies are interconnected.
• If two ring topologies are connected then the resultant
topology is not the hybrid topology.
• On the other hand, if the ring topology is connected to
the bus topology then the resulting topology is called the
hybrid topology.
• This topology generally combines the features of the
two topologies and is therefore more effective and
efficient than the individual topologies
Hybrid Topology
Advantages of hybrid topology are:
 The hybrid topology is more effective as it uses multiple
topologies.
 The hybrid topology contains the best and efficient features
of the combined topologies from which it is constructed.

Disadvantages of hybrid topology:

 The hybrid topology is relatively more complex than the
other topologies.
 The hybrid topology is difficult to install and configure.
Internetworking Devices
 Internetworking ?
• Internetworking stands for
– connectivity and communication between two
or more networks.

How is Internetworking Achieved ?

 Cables and physical interfaces (physical connectivity)

 Protocols, management and applications needed to support user

(Internetworking)
 Internetworking
 Networking hardware, also known as network equipment or
computer networking devices, are physical devices which are
required for communication and interaction between devices
on a computer network.
 Overcome distance limitations and protocol differences for
more effective sharing of data and resources
 Productive communication between people across a single
network or multiple networks
 Email, newsgroups, mailing lists, live conferencing
Relays
• Devices that interconnect LANs are known
as relays and operate at one layer of OSI
model
• There are four common types of relays
– Repeater: at physical layer (bits)
– Bridge: at data-link layer (frames)
– Router: at network layer (packets)
– Gateways: at transport and higher layers
(protocols)
 Repeater
• An electronic device that receives a signal and retransmits it.
• Repeaters are used to extend transmissions so that the signal can
cover longer distances or be received on the other side of an
obstruction.

• Some types of repeaters broadcast an identical signal, but alter

its method of transmission, for example, on another frequency
or baud rate.

• Types of repeaters:
• a telephone repeater is an amplifier in a telephone line,
• an optical repeater is an optoelectronic circuit that amplifies
the light beam in an optical fiber cable;
• radio repeater is a radio receiver and transmitter that
retransmits a radio signal.
 Bridge
• creates a single aggregate network from multiple
communication networks or network segments. This
function is called network bridging.
• Bridging is distinct from routing. Routing allows
multiple networks to communicate independently and
yet remain separate, whereas bridging connects two
separate networks as if they were a single network.
• In the OSI model, bridging is performed in the data link
layer (layer 2).
• If one or more segments of the bridged network are
wireless, the device is known as a wireless bridge and
the function as wireless bridging.
 Router
• Provides a more intelligent service
– makes a decision as to the best way to deliver a
packet from source to destination
– may fragment packets to meet packet size
requirements of LANs
– are slower than bridges
• Connects dissimilar networks, provided that end-
systems use a common network layer protocol,
such as IP.
• Unlike bridge, router receive only those packets
addressed to it by either a user machine or another
router.
 Disadvantages of Routers
• Routers
– are protocol-dependent devices that must
understand the protocol they are forwarding.
– can require a considerable amount of initial
configuration.
– are relatively complex devices, and generally are
more expensive than bridges.
 Advantages of Routers
Routers
 provide sophisticated routing, flow
control, and traffic isolation
 are configurable, which allows network
manager to make policy based on routing
decisions
 allow active loops so that redundant paths
are available
 Gateway
• Connects end-systems whose host protocols have
varying degrees of difference
• Transport gateways make a connection between
two networks at the transport layer.
• Application gateways connect two parts of an
application in the application layer, e.g., sending
email between two machines using different mail
formats
 Connect two networks above the network layer of OSI
model.
 Are capable of converting data frames and network
protocols into the format needed by another network.
 Provide for translation services between different
computer protocols.
 allows data to flow from one discrete network to
another.
 Gateways are distinct from routers or switches in that
they communicate using more than one protocol and
can operate at any of the 7 layers of the OSI model.
Routers versus Bridges
 Brouters: Bridging Routers
 Combine features of bridges and routers.
 Capable of establishing a bridge between two
networks as well as routing some messages
from the bridge networks to other networks.
 Are sometimes called (Layer 2/3) switches and
are a combination of bridge/router hardware
and software.
 Network Connectivity Devices
• Entry-level Hubs
– Interconnect PCs in a single network segment
– Simple stand-alone device that provides a
starting point cost-effective connectivity for
many organizations.
Network Connectivity Devices (contd.)

• Stackable Hubs
– Let you start small and grow your network at
your own pace.
– Are connected by flexible expansion cables,
and once stacked together, function as one hub.
– Manageable as one logical unit.
Network Connectivity Devices (contd.)

• Chassis Hub
– Big iron box that can contain a variety of
network modules.
– It has a power supply, a high speed backplane,
and expansion slots for plug-in Hub modules.
 Network Connectivity Devices (contd.)
• Workgroup switches
– Low-end network devices that aggregate multiple shared
segments
– Use switching technology
– Typically deployed at the desktop level
– Ethernet, Token-Ring, or ATM
Network Connectivity Devices (contd.)

• Workgroup switches
– Low-end network devices that aggregate
multiple shared segments
– Use switching technology.
– Typically deployed at the desktop level.
Network Connectivity Devices (contd.)

• Backbone switches
– High-end network devices deployed at the core
of the network.
– Use switching technology.
– Aggregate data from Hubs and Workgroup
switches.
– Typically accept various networking options.
Network Models
THE OSI MODEL

Established in 1947, the International Standards

Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated
to worldwide agreement on international standards.

An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network

communications is the Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s.
Seven layers of the OSI model
The interaction between layers in the OSI model
An exchange using the OSI model
LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL: Physical layer
The physical layer is responsible for movements of
individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.
Data link layer

The data link layer is responsible for moving

frames from one hop (node) to the next.
Hop-to-hop delivery
Network layer

The network layer is responsible for the

delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.
Source-to-destination delivery
Transport layer

The transport layer is responsible for the delivery

of a message from one process to another.
Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message
Session layer

The session layer is responsible for dialog

control and synchronization.
Presentation layer

The presentation layer is responsible for translation,

compression, and encryption.
Application layer

The application layer is responsible for

providing services to the user.
Summary of layers
Internet
 So, who owns the Internet?
• Well, nobody does.
• No single person or company owns the Internet
or even controls it entirely.
• As a wide-area network, it is made up of many
smaller networks.
• These smaller networks are often owned and
managed by a person or organization.
• The Internet, then, is really defined by how
connections can be made between these
networks.
 Internet Connections
• Internet backbone A set of high-speed
networks that carry Internet traffic
These networks are provided by companies
such as AT&T, GTE, and IBM
• Internet service provider (ISP) A
company that provides other companies or
individuals with access to the Internet
 Internet Connections
• There are various technologies available to connect a home
computer to the Internet
– A phone modem converts computer data into an analog audio
signal for transfer over a telephone line, and then a modem at
the destination converts it back again into data
– A digital subscriber line (DSL) uses regular copper phone
lines to transfer digital data to and from the phone company’s
central office
– A cable modem uses the same line that your cable TV signals
come in on to transfer the data back and forth
 Packet Switching
• To improve the efficiency of transferring information over a
shared communication line, messages are divided into fixed-
sized, numbered packets
• Network devices called routers are used to direct packets
between networks

Messages
sent by
packet
switching
 TCP/IP
• TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol
TCP software breaks messages into packets,
hands them off to the IP software for delivery,
and then orders and reassembles the packets at
their destination
• IP stands for Internet Protocol
IP software deals with the routing of packets
through the maze of interconnected networks to
their final destination
 Firewalls
• Firewall A machine and its software that
serve as a special gateway to a network,
protecting it from inappropriate access
– Filters the network traffic that comes in,
checking the validity of the messages as much
as possible and perhaps denying some messages
altogether
– Enforces an organization’s access control
policy
 Firewalls

A firewall protecting a LAN

 Network Addresses
• Hostname A unique identification that specifies a
particular computer on the Internet
For example
matisse.csc.villanova.edu
condor.develocorp.com

• Network software translates a hostname into its

corresponding IP address
For example
205.39.145.18
 Network Addresses
• An IP address can be split into
– network address, which specifies a specific network
– host number, which specifies a particular machine in
that network

An IP address is
stored in four
bytes
 Domain Name System
• A hostname consists of the computer name
followed by the domain name
• csc.villanova.edu is the domain name
– A domain name is separated into two or more sections
that specify the organization, and possibly a subset of
an organization, of which the computer is a part
– Two organizations can have a computer named the
same thing because the domain name makes it clear
which one is being referred to
 Domain Name System
• The very last section of the domain is called its top-
level domain (TLD) name
 Domain Name System
• Organizations based in countries other than the
United States use a top-level domain that
corresponds to their two-letter country codes