Load Frequency Control

Outlines
 Introduction, LFC Background

 Real and Reactive Power Control Mechanism of

Generator
 Turbine Governing System

 Mathematical Model of LFC

 Load Sharing
 Introduction
Maintaining the system frequency constant is commonly known as
Automatic Load Frequency Control (ALFC). It is also known as Load
Frequency Control (LFC), Power Frequency Control, Real Power
Frequency Control and Automatic Generation Control (AGC).
The basic role of ALFC is:

1. To maintain the desired output power of a generator matching with

the changing load.
2. To assist in controlling the frequency of larger interconnection.

3. To keepthe net interchange power between pool members, at

the predetermined values.

The ALFC loop will maintain control only during small and slow changes in
load and frequency.
 LFC Background
 Both active and reactive power demand in the power system are
never steady and continually change with rising or falling trend.
 Water/steam input to the hydro/steam generator must be
continuously regulated to match the active power demand with
active power generation. Otherwise, machine speed will vary with
consequent change in frequency which is undesirable.
 Excitation of the generators must be continuously regulated to
match the reactive power demand with reactive power generation.
Otherwise, the voltages at various buses will go beyond permissible
limits which is again highly undesirable.
 Automatic generation and voltage regulators are installed in
modern large interconnected system to take care of these demand
fluctuation in automatic manner.
Load frequency and excitation voltage
regulators of turbo generator
 All the control are set for
particular operating condition
to take care of small change
in demand without violating
frequency and voltage limits.
 The regulator should respond
only to slow varying changes
in mean demand and should
be insensitive to fast random
changes around mean
demand to avoid hunting and
consequent wear and tear of
rotating machines
Load frequency and excitation voltage
regulators of turbo generator…..
 In frequency control, change in speed (frequency) is
sensed by frequency sensor and is compared to the
reference frequency. The error activates the steam
valve controller which adjusts the speed.
 In excitation voltage control, output voltage is
sensed by voltage sensor and is compared with the
reference voltage. The error signal activates the
excitation controller to adjust the excitation voltage
and hence to adjust the output voltage
Load frequency and excitation voltage
regulators of turbo generator……
 Load frequency and excitation voltage control are non
interactive and can be modeled independently for the
following reasons:
i. Small changes in active power depends on internal machine
angle δ and is independent of bus voltage. But the bus voltage
depends on excitation and on reactive power generation which
is independent of machine angle δ.
ii. Excitation voltage control is fast acting phenomenon in which
the major time constant refers to the generator field while the
power frequency control is slow acting phenomenon in which
the major time constant is due to the machine inertia which is
much more larger than time constant of field. So the transients
in excitation voltage control vanishes much faster and do not
affect the dynamics of the power frequency control
Load frequency control-single area
 An area in which the various generators constitute a
coherent group so that all the generators speed up and
slow down together maintaining their relative power
angles is called a control area.
 The boundaries of such area normally coincides with that
of an individual utility.
 Knowledge of turbine speed governing system is
essential to understand load frequency control .
 Turbine speed Governing system
 Fly ball speed governor:
It senses the change in speed
(frequency) and movement of
fly ball and linkage
mechanism is activated. For
example, if speed increases,
fly ball move outward and
the point B in the linkage
mechanism moves downward.
The reverse happens when
speed decreases.
 Turbine speed Governing system….
 Hydraulic amplifier:
It consists of a pilot valve and main piston valve arrangement. Here, low
power pilot valve movement is converted into high power piston valve
movement in order to open or close the steam valve against high pressure
steam.
 Linkage mechanism:
ABC is a rigid link pivoted at B and CDE is another rigid link pivoted at
D. This link mechanism provides a movement to the control valve in
proportion to change in speed.
 Speed changer:
It provides the steady state power output to the turbine. Its down ward
movement due to decrease in speed opens the upper pilot valve so that
more steam is admitted to the turbine which brings the speed to normal.
The reverse happens when upward movement occurs due to increase in
speed
 Mathematical model of Load frequency control
A General power generating station consisting of governor, turbine
& generator can be shown in block diagram as follows.

Load
Ref. i/p
Governor Turbine Generator Pg
-
frequency
 When the load demand changes in the system the governor and
the turbine has to respond
 But the governor and the turbine can’t respond instantly to the
input.
 It takes some time to change the output i.e. there is certain time
delay
 So both the governor and the turbine are modeled incorporating
the time delays.
Mathematical Model of Governor and Turbine

Ref. i/p + Pt

-
Governor Turbine

Frequency
Where
Tg = Time delay corresponding of generator
Tt = Time delay of corresponding Turbine
α = Sensor gain to convert frequency into power.
Kg = Gain constant of governor
Kt = Gain constant of turbine
Writing the transfer function of the above block diagram

Pt ( s) K g K T

F ( s) (1  sTg )(1  sTt )
From the above expression for a F change in frequency,
change in turbine output  Pt can be expressed as;
Pt ( s)
Pt ( s)  F ( s)
F ( s)
In steady state;

Pt ( s)
Pt ss  lim s F ( s)
s 0 F ( s)
 K g K T  F
Pt ss  lim s  
s 0
 (1  sTg )(1  sTt )  s
 Pt ss  K g K T F
Pt ss
 F  
K g Kt The frequency verses turbine
 F   R  Pt ss output curve in steady state
(popularly known as drooping
characteristics)

1
R= = slope
 KgKt
FSS

Pt
Normalized Mathematical Model of Governor and Turbine

Ref. i/p + 1 1 Pt
1  sTg 1  sTt
-
Governor Turbine

1/R

Frequency

Where
Tg = Time delay corresponding of generator
Tt = Time delay of corresponding Turbine
R = frequency Regulation coefficient
Mathematical model for Generator frequency
& power.
 Let’s consider generator is originally running in its
normal state with complete power balance i.e.
Pg = Pd + Losses.
 The frequency is at normal value.

 Once the demand is changed in the system there will

be a power imbalance i.e; Pt-Pg≠0.
 As a result the speed (frequency) of generator will
change.
 Also the kinetic energy is proportional to the square of
the speed, rotor kinetic energy as function of
frequency can be expressed as;
 2
f 
W=Ws  
 fs 
Where
Ws= kinetic energy stored at initial (sync.) frequency
fs = Initial Frequency (sync.)
f = Final Frequency
The dynamic power balance at any instant can be expressed
as;
Turbine o/p=generator o/p + rate of change of K.E. +loss in
generator
This in terms of frequency;
d
Pt  Pd  W  D  f
dt
2
d f 
Pt  Pd  Ws    D f
dt  f s 
The Complete Mathematical Block Diagram of LFC

Where Kp = 1/D and Tp = 2Ws /(fs D)

Equivalent Block diagram in the form of Frequency as output and
Demand as input, can be drawn as follows.
Writing the transfer function of the above block
diagram
Kp
Frequency Regulation
R’ =(1/(D+1/R) = slope

FSS(s)

Pd(s)
 For minimum frequency deviation; β has to be maximum
 Means D should me maximum or R should be
minimum.
 Higher D means more loss
 In practical system D is much less than1/R means R’ is
almost equal to R
Limit in Regulation R
 For minimum steady state frequency deviation regulation
R should be as less as possible.
 However R zero or less than a particular minimum value
is not possible otherwise there will be frequency
instability
 This limiting value of R can be found in many ways, one
of the technique getting the actual limiting value of R is
studying the impact of change in R in stability using Root
locus technique
 Load sharing among the generators with different
regulation coefficients

 Let’s consider the case for two generators;

 Regulation of Gen 1=R1
 Regulation of Gen 2=R2

 When they are operating at nominal frequency of f1

 the power generated by Gen1=Pg1
 the power generated by Gen2=Pg2.

 When load changes ΔPL causes a new operating

frequency f2,
 Increment in power generated by Gen1= ΔPg1=Pg1’-Pg1
 Increment in power generated by Gen2 =ΔPg2=Pg2’-Pg2
 fo1
R1 f 02 R2
f1
Δ
f = f 1 - f 2

f 2

Δ P g 1 Δ P g 2

0 Pg1 Pg1’ 0 Pg2 Pg2’

Generator 1 Generator 2

Fig : Generator with different drooping characteristics

Load Sharing
f 1 f 2 f  From the above expression it is
R1   clear that sharing of load among
Pg1' Pg1 Pg1
generators decreases with higher
regulation coefficients R.
f 1 f 2 f
R2    Derive the expression for f
Pg 2' Pg 2 Pg 2
and Pgi for system of n
generators
Then,
R1 f Pg 2 Pg 2  The generators with less R may
 X  be over loaded while some of
R2 Pg1 f Pg1 the generator may be under
Pg1 R 2 loaded with different
Or,  regulations
Pg 2 R1
Frequency Control

 Manual control
 Shifting the drooping characteristics
 Automatic control
 Use of external loop with PID controller
PID controller
Controller output= Kp.e + Ki∫e.dt + Kd de/dt
Where
 e = Signal to be controlled
 Kp= Proportional gain
 Ki= Integral gain
 Kd=Derivative gain
 A proportional controller Kp will have effect of reducing
steady sate error but increase overshot.
 A integral controller Ki will have effect of eliminating
steady sate error, but may make transient response worse
ie increase oscillation.
 A derivative controller Kd will have effect of increasing
the stability of system and improves transient response
but small change in steady state error.