Shear Strength of Soils

Strength of different
materials

Steel Concrete Soil

Tensile Compressive Shear

strength strength strength

Presence of pore water

Complex
behavior
 Shear failure of soils
Soils generally fail in shear

Embankment

Strip footing

Failure surface

Mobilized shear
resistance

At failure, shear stress along the failure surface

(mobilized shear resistance) reaches the shear strength.
Shear failure of soils
Soils generally fail in shear

Retaining
wall
 Shear failure of soils
Soils generally fail in shear

Mobilized
Retaining
shear
wall
resistance

Failure
surface

At failure, shear stress along the failure surface

(mobilized shear resistance) reaches the shear strength.
Shear failure mechanism

failure surface

The soil grains slide

over each other along
the failure surface.

No crushing of
individual grains.
Shear failure mechanism

At failure, shear stress along the failure surface ()

reaches the shear strength (f).
Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
(in terms of total stresses)


 f  c   tan 


Friction angle
Cohesion
f
c



f is the maximum shear stress the soil can take without

failure, under normal stress of .
Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
(in terms of effective stresses)


 f  c' ' tan  '

 '  u
’
u = pore water
Effective
pressure
cohesion Effective
f friction angle
c’
’ ’

f is the maximum shear stress the soil can take without

failure, under normal effective stress of ’.
Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
Shear strength consists of two
components: cohesive and frictional.


f
 f  c' ' f tan  '
’f tan ’ frictional
’ component

c’ c’
’f '
c and  are measures of shear strength.

Higher the values, higher the shear strength.

 Mohr Circle of stress
’1

’
’3 ’3

Soil element q
’1

Resolving forces in  and  directions,

 1'   3'
 Sin 2q ' 2
 '      
' 2 
' '
2
         
2 1 3
  
1 3

 2 
' ' ' '
 '  1 3  1 3 Cos2q  2   
2 2
 Mohr Circle of stress

' 2
 '      
' 2   1'   3'
' '

   
2 1 3
  
1 3
 2
 2 
 2    ’
 3'  1'   3'  1'
2
 Mohr Circle of stress


(’, )
' 2
 '      
' 2   1'   3'
' '

   
2 1 3
  
1 3
 2
 2  q
 2    ’
 3'  1'   3'  1'
2

PD = Pole w.r.t. plane

Mohr Circles & Failure Envelope


Failure surface  f  c' ' tan  '

Y
Y
X X
’
Soil elements at different locations

Y ~ stable
X ~ failure
Mohr Circles & Failure Envelope
The soil element does not fail if
the Mohr circle is contained
within the envelope

GL


c
Y c
c c+
Initially, Mohr circle is a point

Mohr Circles & Failure Envelope
As loading progresses, Mohr
circle becomes larger…

GL


c
Y c
c

.. and finally failure occurs

when Mohr circle touches the
envelope
 Orientation of Failure Plane
’1 Failure envelope
’
’3 ’3
 (’, f)
q (90 – q)
’1

’ q
 3'  1'   3'  1' ’
2

PD = Pole w.r.t. plane

Therefore,
q  45 + ’/2
90 – q  ’ = q
Mohr circles in terms of total & effective stresses

v v’ u

h h’ u
X
= X
+ X

effective stresses
total stresses

 h’ v’  h v  or ’
u
 Failure envelopes in terms of total & effective
stresses
v v’ u

h h’ u
X
= X
+ X

 Failure envelope in terms Failure envelope in

If X is on of effective stresses terms of total stresses
failure ’
effective stresses

total stresses

c’ c
 h’ v’  h v  or ’
u
 Mohr Coulomb failure criterion with Mohr circle
of stress
’v = ’1  Failure envelope in terms
of effective stresses

’h = ’3
X
effective stresses
(’1  ’3)/2
’ c’
X is on failure ’3 ’1 ’
c’ Cot’ (’1 ’3)/2
Therefore,
   1'   3'    1'   3' 
c' Cot '  Sin '   
  2   2 
 Mohr Coulomb failure criterion with Mohr circle
of stress

   1'   3'    1'   3' 

c' Cot '  Sin '   
  2   2 
( '
1 ) ( )
  3'   1'   3' Sin '2c' Cos '
'
1( )
 1  Sin '   3 (1  Sin ')  2c' Cos '
'

 
' (1  Sin ')
'
 2c'
Cos '
1
(1  Sin ')
3
(1  Sin ')

 '   ' 
   Tan  45    2c' Tan 45  
'
1
'
3
2

 2  2
Determination of shear strength parameters of
soils (c,  or c’, ’)

Laboratory tests on Field tests

specimens taken from
representative undisturbed
samples

Most common laboratory tests 1. Vane shear test

to determine the shear strength 2. Torvane
parameters are, 3. Pocket penetrometer
4. Fall cone
1.Direct shear test 5. Pressuremeter
2.Triaxial shear test 6. Static cone penetrometer
7. Standard penetration test
Other laboratory tests include,
Direct simple shear test, torsional
ring shear test, plane strain triaxial
test, laboratory vane shear test,
laboratory fall cone test
Laboratory tests
How to take undisturbed samples
Laboratory tests
Field conditions

A representative
soil sample
z z
vc vc + 

hc hc hc hc

vc vc + 

Before construction After and during

construction
 vc + 
Laboratory tests
Simulating field conditions hc hc
in the laboratory
0 vc vc + 

vc
0 0 hc hc


0 vc 

Representative Step 1 vc

soil sample Step 2
taken from the Set the specimen in
site the apparatus and Apply the
apply the initial corresponding field
stress condition stress conditions
Direct shear test
Schematic diagram of the direct shear apparatus
Direct shear test
Direct shear test is most suitable for consolidated drained tests
specially on granular soils (e.g.: sand) or stiff clays

Preparation of a sand specimen

Porous
plates

Components of the shear box Preparation of a sand specimen

Direct shear test
Preparation of a sand specimen
Pressure plate

Leveling the top surface Specimen preparation

of specimen completed
Direct shear test
Steel ball
Test procedure P
Pressure plate
Porous
plates

Proving ring
to measure
shear force

Step 1: Apply a vertical load to the specimen and wait for consolidation
Direct shear test
Steel ball
Test procedure P
Pressure plate
Porous
plates

Proving ring
to measure
shear force

Step 1: Apply a vertical load to the specimen and wait for consolidation

Step 2: Lower box is subjected to a horizontal displacement at a constant rate

Direct shear test
Dial gauge to
measure vertical
Shear box displacement

Proving ring
to measure
shear force

Loading frame to Dial gauge to

apply vertical load measure horizontal
displacement
 Direct shear test
Analysis of test results

Normal force (P)

  Normal stress 
Area of cross section of the sample

Shear resistance developed at the sliding surface (S)

  Shear stress 
Area of cross section of the sample

Note: Cross-sectional area of the sample changes with the horizontal

displacement
Direct shear tests on sands
Stress-strain relationship

Shear stress, 
Dense sand/
OC clay
f
Loose sand/
f NC clay

Shear displacement
Expansion
Change in height
of the sample

Dense sand/OC Clay

Shear displacement
Compression

Loose sand/NC Clay

Direct shear tests on sands
How to determine strength parameters c and 
Shear stress, 

Normal stress = 3
Normal stress = 2
Normal stress = 1
f2
f1
f3
Shear displacement
Shear stress at failure, f

Mohr – Coulomb failure envelope



Normal stress, 
Direct shear tests on sands
Some important facts on strength parameters c and  of sand

Direct shear tests are

Sand is cohesionless drained and pore water
hence c = 0 pressures are
dissipated, hence u = 0

Therefore,
’ =  and c’ = c = 0
Direct shear tests on clays
In case of clay, horizontal displacement should be applied at a very
slow rate to allow dissipation of pore water pressure (therefore, one
test would take several days to finish)

Failure envelopes for clay from drained direct shear tests

Shear stress at failure, f

Overconsolidated clay (c’ ≠ 0)

Normally consolidated clay (c’ = 0)

’

Normal force, 
Interface tests on direct shear apparatus
In many foundation design problems and retaining wall problems, it
is required to determine the angle of internal friction between soil
and the structural material (concrete, steel or wood)
P

Soil
S

Foundation material

 f  ca   ' tan 
Where,
ca = adhesion,
 = angle of internal friction
Advantages of direct shear apparatus

 Due to the smaller thickness of the sample, rapid drainage can

be achieved

 Can be used to determine interface strength parameters

 Clay samples can be oriented along the plane of weakness or

an identified failure plane

Disadvantages of direct shear apparatus

 Failure occurs along a predetermined failure plane

 Area of the sliding surface changes as the test progresses

 Non-uniform distribution of shear stress along the failure surface

Triaxial Shear Test
Piston (to apply deviatoric stress)

Failure plane
O-ring

impervious
membrane
Soil sample Soil
at failure sample
Porous
Perspex stone
cell
Water

Cell pressure
Back pressure Pore pressure or
pedestal volume change
Triaxial Shear Test
Specimen preparation (undisturbed sample)

Sampling tubes

Sample extruder
Triaxial Shear Test
Specimen preparation (undisturbed sample)

Edges of the sample Setting up the sample

are carefully trimmed in the triaxial cell
Triaxial Shear Test
Specimen preparation (undisturbed sample)

Sample is covered
with a rubber Cell is completely
membrane and sealed filled with water
Triaxial Shear Test
Specimen preparation (undisturbed sample)

Proving ring to
measure the
deviator load

Dial gauge to
measure vertical
displacement

In some tests
Types of Triaxial Tests deviatoric stress
c
( = q)
Step 1 Step 2

c c
c c

c  c+ q
Under all-around cell pressure c Shearing (loading)

Is the drainage valve open? Is the drainage valve open?

yes no yes no

Consolidated Unconsolidated Drained Undrained

sample sample loading loading
Types of Triaxial Tests
Step 1 Step 2

Under all-around cell pressure c Shearing (loading)

Is the drainage valve open? Is the drainage valve open?

yes no yes no

Consolidated Unconsolidated Drained Undrained

sample sample loading
loading

CD test UU test

CU test
Consolidated- drained test (CD Test)
Total,  = Neutral, u + Effective, ’
Step 1: At the end of consolidation
VC ’VC = VC

hC 0 ’hC =
Drainage
hC
Step 2: During axial stress increase
VC +  ’V = VC +  =
’1
hC 0 ’h = hC = ’3
Drainage

Step 3: At failure
VC + f ’Vf = VC + f = ’1f

hC 0 ’hf = hC = ’3f

Drainage
Consolidated- drained test (CD Test)

1 = VC + 

3 = hC

Deviator stress (q or d) = 1 – 3

Consolidated- drained test (CD Test)
Volume change of sample during consolidation

Expansion
Volume change of the

Time
sample

Compression
Consolidated- drained test (CD Test)
Stress-strain relationship during shearing

Deviator stress, d

Dense sand
or OC clay
(d)f
Loose sand
(d)f or NC Clay

Axial strain
Expansion
Volume change

Dense sand
of the sample

or OC clay
Axial strain
Compression

Loose sand
or NC clay
CD tests How to determine strength parameters c and 
(d)fc
1 = 3 + (d)f
Deviator stress, d

Confining stress = 3c

Confining stress = 3b

(d)fb Confining stress = 3a 3

(d)fa

Axial strain

Shear stress, 

Mohr – Coulomb
failure envelope

 or ’
3a 3b 3c 1a 1b 1c
(d)fa (d)fb
CD tests
Strength parameters c and  obtained from CD tests

Since u = 0 in CD Therefore, c = c’
tests,  = ’ and  = ’

cd and d are used

to denote them
CD tests Failure envelopes

For sand and NC Clay, cd = 0

d
Shear stress, 

Mohr – Coulomb
failure envelope

 or ’
3a 1a
(d)fa

Therefore, one CD test would be sufficient to determine d

of sand or NC clay
CD tests Failure envelopes

For OC Clay, cd ≠ 0

 OC NC


c  or ’
3 1 c
(d)f
Some practical applications of CD analysis for
clays
1. Embankment constructed very slowly, in layers over a soft clay
deposit

Soft clay

  = in situ drained
shear strength
Some practical applications of CD analysis for
clays
2. Earth dam with steady state seepage


Core

 = drained shear
strength of clay core
Some practical applications of CD analysis for
clays
3. Excavation or natural slope in clay

 = In situ drained shear strength

Note: CD test simulates the long term condition in the field.

Thus, cd and d should be used to evaluate the long
term behavior of soils
 Consolidated- Undrained test (CU Test)
Total,  = Neutral, u + Effective, ’
Step 1: At the end of consolidation
VC ’VC = VC

hC 0 ’hC =
Drainage
hC
Step 2: During axial stress increase
VC +  ’V = VC +  ± u = ’1

No
drainage hC ±u ’h = hC ± u = ’3

Step 3: At failure
VC + f ’Vf = VC + f ± uf = ’1f

No
drainage hC ±uf 
’hf = hC ± uf = ’3f
Consolidated- Undrained test (CU Test)
Volume change of sample during consolidation

Expansion
Volume change of the

Time
sample

Compression
Consolidated- Undrained test (CU Test)
Stress-strain relationship during shearing

Deviator stress, d

Dense sand
or OC clay
(d)f
Loose sand
(d)f or NC Clay

Axial strain
+

Loose sand
/NC Clay
u

Axial strain
-

Dense sand
or OC clay
 CU tests How to determine strength parameters c and 
Deviator stress, d (d)fb 1 = 3 + (d)f
Confining stress = 3b
Confining stress = 3a
3
(d)fa
Total stresses at failure
Axial strain
Shear stress, 

Mohr – Coulomb cu

failure envelope in
terms of total stresses

ccu
 or ’
3a 3b 1a 1b
(d)fa
CU tests How to determine strength parameters c and 
’1 = 3 + (d)f - uf

’3 = 3 - uf
Mohr – Coulomb failure uf
envelope in terms of
effective stresses Effective stresses at failure
Shear stress, 

Mohr – Coulomb ’
failure envelope in
terms of total stresses
cu

ufb
C’ ’3b ufa
ccu ’1b  or ’
’3a 3a 3b ’1a 1a 1b
(d)fa
CU tests
Strength parameters c and  obtained from CD tests

Shear strength
Shear strength parameters in terms
parameters in terms of effective stresses
of total stresses are are c’ and ’
ccu and cu
c’ = cd and ’ = d
CU tests Failure envelopes
For sand and NC Clay, ccu and c’ = 0
Mohr – Coulomb failure
envelope in terms of
effective stresses

Mohr – Coulomb ’ cu

Shear stress, 

failure envelope in
terms of total stresses

 or ’
3a 3a 1a 1a
(d)fa

Therefore, one CU test would be sufficient to determine

cu and ’(= d) of sand or NC clay
Some practical applications of CU analysis for
clays
1. Embankment constructed rapidly over a soft clay deposit

Soft clay

  = in situ undrained
shear strength
Some practical applications of CU analysis for
clays
2. Rapid drawdown behind an earth dam


Core

 = Undrained shear
strength of clay core
Some practical applications of CU analysis for
clays
3. Rapid construction of an embankment on a natural slope

 = In situ undrained shear strength

Note: Total stress parameters from CU test (ccu and cu) can be used for
stability problems where,
Soil have become fully consolidated and are at equilibrium with
the existing stress state; Then for some reason additional
stresses are applied quickly with no drainage occurring
Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)
Data analysis
Specimen condition
Initial specimen condition during shearing
C = 3
No 3 + d
No
drainage C = 3 drainage 3

Initial volume of the sample = A0 × H0

Volume of the sample during shearing = A × H

Since the test is conducted under undrained condition,

A × H = A0 × H0
A0
A ×(H0 – H) = A0 × H0 A
A ×(1 – H/H0) = A0
1  z
 Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)
Step 1: Immediately after sampling
0

Step 2: After application of hydrostatic cell pressure

C = 3 ’3 = 3 - uc
No
C = 3 uc ’3 = 3 - uc
drainage
= +

uc = B 3
Increase of cell pressure
Increase of pwp due to
increase of cell pressure
Skempton’s pore water
pressure parameter, B
Note: If soil is fully saturated, then B = 1 (hence, uc = 3)
 Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)

Step 3: During application of axial load

’1 = 3 + d - uc ud
3 + d
No
drainage 3
= + ’3 = 3 - uc  ud
uc ± ud

ud = ABd
Increase of pwp due to Increase of deviator
increase of deviator stress stress
Skempton’s pore water
pressure parameter, A
Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)

Combining steps 2 and 3,

uc = B 3 ud = ABd

Total pore water pressure increment at any stage, u

u = uc + ud

u = B [3 + Ad]
Skempton’s pore
u = B [3 + A(1 – 3] water pressure
equation
Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)

Derivation of Skempton’s pore water pressure equation

Derivation of Skempton’s pore water pressure equation
Step 1 :Increment of isotropic stress
1 1 + 3

3 + 3
3 uc

2
2 + 3

No drainage
No drainage

Increase in effective stress in each direction = 3 - uc

Derivation of Skempton’s pore water pressure equation
Step 2 :Increment of major principal stress
1 1 + 1

3 + 0
3 uc

2
2 + 0

No drainage
No drainage

Increase in effective stress in 1 direction = 1 - ud

Increase in effective stress in 2 and 3 directions = 0 - ud

Average Increase in effective stress = (1 - ud - ud – ud)/3

Typical values for parameter B
Typical values for parameter A

1 – 3 u

1 – 3

Axial strain Axial strain

NC Clay (low sensitivity) NC Clay (High sensitivity)

(A = 0.5 – 1.0) (A > 1.0)

Collapse of soil structure may occur in high sensitivity

clays due to very high pore water pressure generation
Typical values for parameter A
1 – 3 1 – 3

u
u
Axial strain Axial strain

OC Clay (Lightly overconsolidated) OC Clay (Heavily overconsolidated)

(A = 0.0 – 0.5) (A = -0.5 - 0.0)

During the increase of major principal stress pore water

pressure can become negative in heavily overconsolidated
clays due to dilation of specimen
Typical values for parameter A
 Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)
Total,  = Neutral, u + Effective, ’
Step 1: Immediately after sampling ’V0 = ur
0
0 -ur ’h0 = ur

Step 2: After application of hydrostatic cell pressure ’VC = C + ur - C = ur

C
No
-ur  uc = -ur  c
drainage C ’h = ur
(Sr = 100% ; B = 1)

Step 3: During application of axial load ’V = C +  + ur - c u

C + 
No
drainage C -ur  c ± u ’h = C + ur - c  u
Step 3: At failure ’Vf = C + f + ur - c uf = ’1f
C + f
No
drainage C -ur  c ± uf
’hf = C + ur - c  uf
= ’3f
Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)
Total,  = Neutral, u + Effective, ’
Step 3: At failure ’Vf = C + f + ur - c uf = ’1f
C + f
No
drainage C -ur  c ± uf
’hf = C + ur - c  uf
= ’3f

Mohr circle in terms of effective stresses do not depend on the cell

pressure.

Therefore, we get only one Mohr circle in terms of effective stress for
different cell pressures

’
’3 f ’1
Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)
Total,  = Neutral, u + Effective, ’
Step 3: At failure ’Vf = C + f + ur - c uf = ’1f
C + f
No
drainage C -ur  c ± uf
’hf = C + ur - c  uf
= ’3f

Mohr circles in terms of total stresses

Failure envelope, u = 0


cu
ub ua

’
3a
3b3 f 
’1a
1b
1  or ’
Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)

Effect of degree of saturation on failure envelope

 S < 100% S > 100%

3c 3b 1c 3a 1b 1a  or ’

Some practical applications of UU analysis for
clays
1. Embankment constructed rapidly over a soft clay deposit

Soft clay

  = in situ undrained
shear strength
Some practical applications of UU analysis for
clays
2. Large earth dam constructed rapidly with
no change in water content of soft clay


Core

 = Undrained shear
strength of clay core
Some practical applications of UU analysis for
clays
3. Footing placed rapidly on clay deposit

 = In situ undrained shear strength

Note: UU test simulates the short term condition in the field.

Thus, cu can be used to analyze the short term
behavior of soils
Unconfined Compression Test (UC Test)

1 = VC + 

3 = 0

Confining pressure is zero in the UC test

Unconfined Compression Test (UC Test)

1 = VC + f

Shear stress, 
3 = 0

qu

Normal stress, 

Note: Theoritically qu = cu , However in the actual case

qu < cu due to premature failure of the sample
Stress Invariants (p and q)
p (or s) = (1 + 3)/2 q (or t) = (1 - 3)/2


(1 - 3)/2

 c
3 1 
(1 + 3)/2
p and q can be used to illustrate the variation of the stress
state of a soil specimen during a laboratory triaxial test
Stress Invariants (p and q)
p (or s) = (1 + 3)/2 q (or t) = (1 - 3)/2

 or q
GL


c
c

c
 or p
Mohr Coulomb failure envelope in terms of stress invariants
p (or s) = (1 + 3)/2 q (or t) = (1 - 3)/2


(1 - 3)/2

 c
3 1 
(1 + 3)/2
   1'   3'    1'   3' 
c' Cot '  Sin  '   
  2   2 

( '
1 ) (
  3'

 1'   3' )
Sin 'c' Cos '
q  pSin 'c' Cos '
2 2
Mohr Coulomb failure envelope in terms of stress invariants
p (or s) = (1 + 3)/2 q (or t) = (1 - 3)/2
 or q

a
c cos
 or p

Therefore, sin = tana  = sin-1(tana)

Stress path for CD triaxial test
In CD tests pore water pressure is equal to zero. Therefore, total and
effective stresses are equal
p, p’ (or s, s’) = (1 + 3)/2 q (or t) = (1 - 3)/2
= (’1 + ’3)/2
Step 1 3

 or q
3

p, p’ (or s, s’) = 3 q (or t) = 0

Step 2 3 + d

3
450
3 d
p, p’ (or s, s’) = 3 + d/2 q (or t) = d/2  or p
Stress path for CU triaxial test
In CU tests pore water pressure develops during shearing
p (or s) = (1 + 3)/2 q (or t) = (1 - 3)/2
p’ (or s’) = (1 + 3)/2 - u

Step 1 3

3

q
ud
p, p’ (or s, s’) = 3 q (or t) = 0

Step 2 3 + d

ud 3
450

3 = ’3 d , ’ or p, p’
p (or s) = 3 + d/2 q (or t) = d/2
Other laboratory shear tests

 Direct simple shear test

 Torsional ring shear test

 Plane strain triaxial test

Other laboratory shear tests

 Direct simple shear test

 Torsional ring shear test

 Plane strain triaxial test

Direct simple shear test

Porous Spiral wire

Soil specimen in rubber
stones
membrane

Direct shear test

 = 80 mm
Direct simple shear test
Other laboratory shear tests

 Direct simple shear test

 Torsional ring shear test

 Plane strain triaxial test

Torsional ring shear test

 f
’max

’res
Peak
Residual

Shear displacement ’
Torsional ring shear test

N

Preparation of ring shaped

undisturbed samples is very
difficult. Therefore, remoulded
samples are used in most cases
Other laboratory shear tests

 Direct simple shear test

 Torsional ring shear test

 Plane strain triaxial test

Plane strain triaxial test

’1

’1, 1

’3, 3
’2, 2

’2 Specimen ’2

Plane strain test
’2 ≠ ’3
’3
2 = 0

Rigid platens
In-situ shear tests

 Vane shear test

 Torvane

 Pocket Penetrometer

 Pressuremeter

 Static Cone Penetrometer test (Push

Cone Penetrometer Test, PCPT)

 Standard Penetration Test, SPT

In-situ shear tests

 Vane shear test (suitable for soft to stiff clays)

 Torvane

 Pocket Penetrometer

 Pressuremeter

 Static Cone Penetrometer test (Push

Cone Penetrometer Test, PCPT)

 Standard Penetration Test, SPT

Vane shear test
This is one of the most versatile and widely used devices used for
investigating undrained shear strength (Cu) and sensitivity of soft clays
Applied
Torque, T Disturbed Rupture
soil surface
Bore hole
(diameter = DB)

h > 3DB)
Vane T
H Vane

PLAN VIEW
Rate of rotation : 60 – 120 per minute

D Test can be conducted at 0.5 m

vertical intervals
Vane shear test T = Ms + Me + Me = Ms + 2Me
Me – Assuming a uniform
distribution of shear strength

Cu

d/2 d/2
Cu h d
2
M e   (2rdr ).Cu r
0
d d
Cu 2
 r 3
 2
M e  2Cu  r dr  2Cu  
2

Since the test is very fast, 0  3 0

Unconsolidated Undrained
2Cu d
 3
 Cu d 3
(UU) can be expected
Me   
3 8 12
Vane shear test T = Ms + Me + Me = Ms + 2Me
Ms – Shaft shear resistance along
the circumference
2
d d h
M s  dhCu  Cu
2 2
Cu d 2 h Cu d 3
T  Cu  2
2 12
 d 2h d 3 
Cu T  Cu   
 2 6 
Since the test is very fast, T
Unconsolidated Undrained Cu 
 d 2h d 3 
(UU) can be expected    
 2 6 
Vane shear test T = Ms + Me + Me = Ms + 2Me
Me – Assuming a triangular
distribution of shear strength

Cu
Cu h
d/2 d/2

T
Cu Cu 
 d 2h d 3 
   
Since the test is very fast,  2 8 
Unconsolidated Undrained
(UU) can be expected Can you derive this ???
Vane shear test T = Ms + Me + Me = Ms + 2Me
Me – Assuming a parabolic
distribution of shear strength

Cu
Cu h
d/2 d/2

T
Cu 
Cu  d 2 h 3d 3 
   
 2 20 
Since the test is very fast,
Unconsolidated Undrained
(UU) can be expected Can you derive this ???
Vane shear test
After the initial test, vane can be
rapidly rotated through several
revolutions until the clay become
remoulded

Cu h

peak
ultimate

Cu Shear displacement

Since the test is very fast,

Peak Stength
Unconsolidated Undrained Sensitivity 
(UU) can be expected Ultimate Stength
Some important facts on vane shear test
Insertion of vane into soft
clays and silts disrupts the
natural soil structure around
the vane causing reduction
of shear strength
The above reduction
is partially regained
after some time
Cu as determined by
vane shear test may
be a function of the
rate of angular
rotation of the vane
Correction for the strength parameters obtained
from vane shear test

Bjerrum (1974) has shown that as the plasticity of soils

increases, Cu obtained by vane shear tests may give
unsafe results for foundation design. Therefore, he
proposed the following correction.

Cu(design) = lCu(vane
shear)

Where, l = correction factor = 1.7 – 0.54 log (PI)

PI = Plasticity Index
In-situ shear tests

 Vane shear test

 Torvane (suitable for very soft to stiff clays)

 Pocket Penetrometer

 Pressuremeter

 Static Cone Penetrometer test (Push

Cone Penetrometer Test, PCPT)

 Standard Penetration Test, SPT

Torvane

Torvane is a modification to the vane

In-situ shear tests

 Vane shear test

 Torvane

 Pocket Penetrometer (suitable for very soft to stiff clays)

 Pressuremeter

 Static Cone Penetrometer test (Push

Cone Penetrometer Test, PCPT)

 Standard Penetration Test, SPT

Pocket Penetrometer
Pushed directly into the soil. The unconfined compression
strength (qu) is measured by a calibrated spring.
Swedish Fall Cone (suitable for very soft to soft clays)

Cu ∞ Mass of the cone

∞ 1/(penetration)2

Soil sample

The test must be calibrated

In-situ shear tests

 Vane shear test

 Torvane

 Pocket Penetrometer

 Pressuremeter (suitable for all soil types)

 Static Cone Penetrometer test (Push

Cone Penetrometer Test, PCPT)

 Standard Penetration Test, SPT

Pressuremeter
Air

Coaxial tube

Water

Pre – bored or
self – bored hole

Guard cell

Measuring cell

Guard cell
 Pressure
Pressuremeter
Air

Coaxial tube Time

Volumetric expansion Volumetric expansion

Water

Pre – bored or
self – bored hole

Guard cell

Measuring cell
Pseudo- Elastic
Guard cell elastic phase
phase

Pressure
In-situ shear tests

 Vane shear test

 Torvane

 Pocket Penetrometer

 Pressuremeter
 Static Cone Penetrometer test (Push
Cone Penetrometer Test, PCPT)
(suitable for all soil types except very course
granular materials)

 Standard Penetration Test, SPT

 40 mm
Static Cone
Penetrometer 40 mm
test
40 mm
40 mm

Cone penetrometers
with pore water
pressure measurement
capability are known as
piezocones
Static Cone Penetrometer test

Force required for the inner rod to push the tip (Fc) and the
total force required to push both the tip and the sleeve (Fc +
Fs) will be measured

Point resistance (qc) = Fc/ area of the tip

Sleeve resistance (qs) = Fs/ area of the sleeve in contact with soil

Friction Ratio (fr) = qs/ qc ×100 (%)

Various correlations have been developed to determine soil

strength parameters (c, , ect) from fr
In-situ shear tests

 Vane shear test

 Torvane

 Pocket Penetrometer

 Pressuremeter
 Static Cone Penetrometer test (Push
Cone Penetrometer Test, PCPT)

 Standard Penetration Test, SPT

(suitable for granular materials)
 Standard Penetration Test, SPT
SPT is the most widely used test procedure to determine
the properties of in-situ soils

Number of blows for the first 150 mm

63.5 kg penetration is disregarded due to the
disturbance likely to exist at the bottom
of the drill hole

Various correlations have been developed

The test to determine
can be conducted soil
at every 1m
m , ect)
0.76 (c,
strength parameters from
vertical N
intervals

0.15 m Number of blows = N1

Drill rod 0.15 m Number of blows = N2
0.15 m Number of blows = N3

Standard penetration resistance (SPT N) = N2 + N3

Standard Penetration Test, SPT

SPT (Manual operation)

Various correlations for shear strength
For NC clays, the undrained shear strength (cu) increases with the
effective overburden pressure, ’0

cu
 0.11  0.0037( PI ) Skempton (1957)
 '
0

Plasticity Index as a %
For OC clays, the following relationship is approximately true

 cu   cu 
 '   '   (OCR ) 0.8 Ladd (1977)
  0 Overconsolidated   0  NormallyConsolidated

For NC clays, the effective friction angle (’) is related to PI as follows

Sin '  0.814  0.234 log( IP ) Kenny (1959)

Shear strength of partially saturated soils
In the previous sections, we were discussing the shear strength of
saturated soils. However, in most of the cases, we will encounter
unsaturated soils in tropical countries like Sri Lanka

Air Pore air

Pore water pressure, ua
Water
pressure, u
Water Pore water
pressure, uw
Effective
Solid Solid
stress, ’ Effective
stress, ’

Saturated soils Unsaturated soils

Pore water pressure can be negative in unsaturated soils

Shear strength of partially saturated soils
Bishop (1959) proposed shear strength equation for unsaturated soils as
follows

 f  c'( n  ua )   (ua  uw ) tan  '

Where,
n – ua = Net normal stress
ua – uw = Matric suction
= a parameter depending on the degree of saturation
( = 1 for fully saturated soils and 0 for dry soils)

Fredlund et al (1978) modified the above relationship as follows

 f  c'( n  ua ) tan  '(ua  uw ) tan  b

Where,
tanb = Rate of increase of shear strength with matric suction
Shear strength of partially saturated soils

 f  c'( n  ua ) tan  '(ua  uw ) tan  b

Same as saturated soils Apparent cohesion

due to matric suction

Therefore, strength of unsaturated soils is much higher than the strength

of saturated soils due to matric suction

’

 - ua
How it become possible
build a sand castle

 f  c'( n  ua ) tan  '(ua  uw ) tan  b

Same as saturated soils Apparent cohesion

due to matric suction

’
Apparent
cohesion  - ua