Unit-1

Basics of Gas Turbine Propulsion

Introduction to Aerospace Propulsion
(12ME7E4)

Basics of Gas Turbine Propulsion

Department of Mechanical Engineering

R.V.College of Engineering
Bengaluru 560059
 The basic gas turbine engine
•A simple, open cycle gas turbine
Fuel
arrangement is shown in figure.
C.C. 3
2
•It operates on the Joule or Brayton cycle
and consists of two isentropics and two C T Wnet

constant pressure processes.

1 4
•This is a steady flow cycle and the
processes are performed in separate
components such as compressor,
combustion chamber and turbine.
3
2 3
Isentropics

2
T
4
p

1 4 1
v s
 The basic gas turbine engine
For the air-standard Brayton cycle,
• Process 1 – 2: Air is isentropically compressed in a compressor
• Process 2 – 3: Heat is added to the air at constant pressure in a combustion
chamber
• Process 3 – 4: Hot air is isentropically expanded in a turbine to extract work.
• Process 4 – 1: Heat is rejected at constant pressure to a heat sink to complete
the cycle.

Points to be noted:
• Heat interaction takes place only during the two constant pressure processes.
Heat is neither supplied nor rejected during the isentropic processes.
• The rotating compressor acts as a fan to force the air into and around the
combustion chamber. In an open cycle gas turbine unit, a portion of the air is
mixed with fuel and burnt in the combustion chamber. High temperature of
combustion gases is reduced by mixing more air with combustion products.
• Exhaust is discharged into the atmosphere in an open cycle system.
 The basic gas turbine engine
• The rate of energy transfer in each component of the system can be estimated
as follows by thermodynamic analysis of the Brayton cycle using perfect gas.

Work absorbed by compressor  Wc  ma c p T2  T1 

Heat added in combustion chamber  Qin  ma c p T3  T2 
Work done by turbine  WT  ma  f c p T3  T4 
Heat rejected to atmosphere  Qout  ma  f c p T4  T1 
Net work output  Wnet  WT  Wc  ma c p T3  T4  T2  T1 

• Thermal efficiency or Brayton cycle efficiency is, Assuming fuel addition to

be negligible, ma = m(a+f)

Wnet ma c p T3  T4  T2  T1 

 B  Th  
Qin ma c p T3  T2 
 The basic gas turbine engine
ma c p T3  T4  T2  T1  T4  T1
 B  Th   1
ma c p T3  T2  T3  T2

T1 
T4
 1
B  1  T1 

T2 
T3
 1
 T2 
 
p4 p1  T4   1  T1   1
We know that       
p3 p2  T3   T2 
or ,
 T4   T1   T4   T3 
          
 T3   T2   T1   T2 
 The basic gas turbine engine

T1  T4  1
 T1   T1  1
 B  1  1     1 
T2  3  1  T2 
T TR
 T2 
Where TR is the temperature ratio across the compressor. This can
also be written in terms of the compressor pressure ratio PR as
follows:
 1
T2  p2   1
Since TR       PR  
T1  p1 
1 1
B  1   1
TR   1
PR 
 The basic gas turbine engine
• Again, considering the net work output of the turbine,

Wnet  WT  WC   C p T3  T4   C p T2  T1   C p T3  T4  T2  T1 ; or

T T T  W T T T 
Wnet  C pT1  3  4  2  1 or net   3  4  2  1 …. (1)
 T1 T1 T1  C pT1  T1 T1 T1 
we know that for isentropic process,
 1
 1
T2  p2  
 PR 
 T3
    ; now eqn. (1) can be written as,
T1  p1  T4

Wnet  T3 T4 T3 T2   T3  1 

      1  
1

T3
  PR   1
C pT1  T1 T3 T1 T1   T1 PR  1 T1 
 
Wnet T3  1    1

 1    PR    1
C pT1 T1  PR  1   
 
This shows that the specific work output (upon which the plant size is determined)
is a function of pressure ratio as well as maximum cycle temperature
 The basic gas turbine engine
• The maximum cycle temperature (or the turbine inlet temperature T3) is also
known as the metallurgical limit. The highly stressed parts of the turbine
should withstand this temperature during the engine’s working life.
• The ratio (T3/T1) for an industrial gas turbine lies between 3.5 and 4.0 whereas
a value of 5.0 to 5.5 is permitted for aircraft engines with cooled turbine
blades.

(T3/T1) = 5

(T3/T1) = 4

Pressure Ratio Pressure Ratio

 The basic gas turbine engine
• It can be seen that at constant temperature ratio, maximum specific work
occurs at a certain pressure ratio. 
 T3   1  T3   1

• W = 0 at PR = 1 and also at PR    or    PR  for which the

 
 T1 

 T1 


compression and expansion processes coincide.

• Therefore, for any given value of (T3/T1), there must be an optimum pressure
ratio for maximum specific work output. This can be found by differentiating
 1
equation (1) with respect to PR  and equating it to zero. Then we get,
 1
PRopt

T3
; squaring both sides,
T1
 1 2
T3  
 PR    ; since,
T1  

 1
PR  T2 T3
 
T1 T4
 The basic gas turbine engine

• It can be written as
T3 T2 T3 T2 T3
     T2  T4
T1 T1 T4 T4 T1
• This means that the specific work output is maximum when the
pressure ratio is such that the compressor and turbine outlet
temperatures are equal. For all values of PR between 1 and

 T3  2  1
 
 T1  , T4 > T2 and a heat exchanger can be used to improve cycle
efficiency by heating the compressor outlet air with exhaust heat.
Typical configuration of a gas turbine engine

**

i 1 2 3 4 4 e

Optional
*
 Concept of stagnation (or total) condition
• In fluid dynamics, a stagnation point is a point where the local
2

velocity of the fluid is zero. The Bernoulli equation, p  v2  C

shows that the static pressure is highest when the velocity is zero.
That static pressure then becomes the stagnation pressure.
• Total pressure is also equal to static pressure and dynamic pressure.
So, in incompressible flows, stagnation pressure is also equal to
total pressure.
• In compressible flows, stagnation pressure is also equal to total
pressure if the fluid entering the stagnation point is brought to rest
isentropically.
• Similarly, stagnation values can be defined for enthalpy,
temperature, density and velocity.
• The concept of stagnation (also called total) condition defines a
reference state for a flowing fluid.
• The stagnation state of a flowing fluid is defined as the state attained
by the fluid when it is decelerated to zero velocity isentropically.
 Stagnation enthalpy and pressure
• The stagnation enthalpy (h0) for a h
flowing fluid at any section is its
enthalpy when it is isentropically
Stagnation enthalpy Stagnation state
decelerated to zero velocity, or it is h0
the sum of static enthalpy and
kinetic energy possessed by the
Isentropic line
fluid at that section. V2
2
V2
h0  h  (kJ/kg)
2
Stagnation Static Dynamic
p
enthalpy enthalpy enthalpy

h Static pressure
• The stagnation pressure for a
flowing fluid is the pressure when
h
it is isentropically decelerated to
zero velocity. It is the sum of static
s
and dynamic pressures. s = s0
2
V
p0  p   (kPa or MPa)
Illustration of stagnation enthalpy and
2
stagnation pressure on Mollier diagram
Stagnation Static Dynamic
pressure pressure pressure
 Stagnation temperature

• The stagnation temperature (T0) is

defined as the temperature
attained when the fluid is
isentropically decelerated to zero
velocity. It is the sum of static
temperature and dynamic
temperature. For a perfect gas,
h=CpT. Therefore,
V2 V2
C pT0  h   C pT  ; or
2 2
V2
T0  T  (K)
2C p

Stagnation Static Dynamic

temperature temperature temperature

Illustration of stagnation temperature on

2
V is known as dynamic or impact or T-s diagram

2C p velocity temperature
 Relation between pressure and temperature
• The stagnation temperature can also be defined as the static
temperature in an infinite reservoir from which the fluid is
accelerated isentropically to its actual velocity V. The static pressure
corresponding to this temperature is the stagnation (or total)
pressure, p0.
• Since the process of acceleration is isentropic and the fluid is a
perfect gas, the stagnation pressure and stagnation temperature are
related by using the isentropic relation for perfect gas.

p0  T0  1
and by noting that   v and pv  p0v0 , the ratio of stagnation
 1  
 
p T  and static densities can be written as
1
0  T0   1
 
 T 

• For any flow, the stagnation property at any section in the flow field
can be calculated by assuming that the flow is decelerated
isentropically from the values of pressure, temperature and velocity
of the point in question to zero velocity.
 Isentropic and actual stagnation states
Example of a compression process is depicted in the following diagram

p0
h Isentropic
stagnation
p0 act
state

h0
Actual
stagnation
V2 state
p
2

h Increase in entropy due to

inefficiency of the process
Actual state

s0 s0 act s

Note:
• Stagnation enthalpy of the fluid (and the stagnation temperature if the
fluid is an ideal gas) is the same for both the ideal and actual cases.
• However, the actual stagnation pressure is lower than the isentropic
stagnation pressure since entropy increases during the actual
stagnation process as a result of fluid friction.
 Ideal and Actual Brayton cycle

Ideal cycle Actual cycle

• All processes in the real Brayton cycle deviate from the ideal
processes due to fluid dynamic losses.
• In the analysis of thermodynamic cycles, it is usual to account
for the deviations with the help of process efficiencies and
coefficients.
 Diffusion Process

• Atmospheric air, initially at a free stream pressure of pi and

temperature Ti reaches the stagnation pressure p01 and
temperature T01 by ram diffusion due to forward speed of
aircraft.
• The diffusion is not reversible. While the stagnation
temperature is the same for both real and ideal flows, the actual
stagnation pressure p01 is lower than the ideal stagnation
pressure p’01.
• If M0 is the Mach number of the air relative to the intake, the
stagnation temperature is given by,

T01    1 2 
 1  M0 
Ti  2 
 Diffusion Process

• For isentropic flow, the total pressure of air at the diffuser

outlet is given by,

'
p01  T01   1
  
pi  Ti 
• The total pressure at the T
P’01
p01
T01 = T’01 01’
outlet of an actual diffuser will 01
be lower than the ideal total V02 Actual diffusion
pressure, i.e., p01<p’01 2C p Isentropic

• A factor called “ram recovery

diffusion pi

hi
ratio (εr)” is used to correct i
s
the ideal total pressure to
actual total pressure
 Diffusion Process
p01  pi
r 
p'01  pi
p01  pi   r  p'01  pi 
  p'01 
p01  pi  1   r   1
  pi 

 
p01    1 2
 
M 0   1
1
 1   r 1 
pi  2  
 
• Sometimes, diffuser efficiency is defined as the ratio of
enthalpy change in isentropic to actual process for the same
outlet pressure. Efficiency based on this definition is called
isentropic diffuser efficiency.
 Diffusion Process

T '1s
1
h'1s hi T '1s Ti Ti
is    h

h01  hi T01  Ti T01  1 h01

01
1’s
Ti h’1s
Actual diffusion
• We know that Isentropic
diffusion to pi
 1 the same

T '1s  p01    1 2
pressure
T01
   and  1 M0 hi i
Ti  pi  Ti 2
s

• Therefore,

p01    1 2   1
 1  is M0  Where, M0 is the Mach number
relative to the intake
pi  2 
 Compression Process
• The isentropic and actual compression process is related by
defining an isentropic efficiency of compression.
• Isentropic compression efficiency is defined as the ratio of
isentropic change in total enthalpy to the actual change in
total enthalpy.
W 'c h'02 h01 T '02 T01
c   
Wc h02  h01 T02  T01
h
h02
02
h’02 02’
Actual compression
 1
  Wc
Isentropic
 p02   W’c p01

   1
compression

 T '02  T01 
T01   1  p01  
 
h01 01

  T01  
T02  T01 T02  T01
s
 Compression Process
• On simplification, this yields
 1 Where, rc is the stagnation pressure
T01  
 1
 ratio for the compressor. The value of ηc
T02  T01  rc
c  

for turbojet compressors range from 0.8
to 0.9

Combustion Process
• Air enters the combustion chamber at a pressure p02 and
temperature T02. Fuel is introduced and burned in the
combustion chamber and the process is from the stagnation
state 02 to 03.
• There is a stagnation pressure loss Δpc due to mixing and
turbulence. In addition, there may be losses due to
incomplete combustion of fuel. This loss is accounted with
the help of combustion efficiency.
 Combustion Process
• Combustion efficiency is defined as the ratio of the enthalpy
rise for the fluids (air and fuel) in the combustion chamber to
the energy content of the fuel.

comb 
ma  m f h03  m a h02 m a 1  f h03  m a h02

m f Q f fm a Q f

comb 
1  f h03  h02 f = (mf / ma) is the fuel-air ratio and
fQ f Qf is the calorific value of the fuel.

• If fuel air ratio (being small) is ignored, then

h03  h02
comb 
fQ f
 Expansion Process in Turbine
• Expansion in the turbine takes place from stagnation
pressure p03 to p04 providing work output WT which is equal
to the compressor work plus the work required for engine
accessories.
• Mass flow rate through the turbine
h
is usually taken as compressor
mass flow rate and fuel mass flow h 03
03
Actual expansion
rate is ignored because it is small in
W’ Isentropic
T

comparison to air mass flow rate. W expansion

T
p04

• Isentropic turbine efficiency is h 04

04
defined as the ratio of actual work h’ 04’
04

output to the isentropic work s

output, i.e.,
WT h03  h04 C p T03  T04 
t   
W 'T h03  h'04 C p T03  T '04 
 Expansion Process in Turbine
• This can be written as,
T03  T04 T03  T04
t    1
 T '04   
T03 1     p04   

 T03  T03 1    
  p03  
 
 1
 
 1   rt is the turbine pressure ratio. The
 T03  T04  tT03 1     turbine efficiency is generally
  rt   between 0.85 and 0.9
 
• If work done for the engine accessories is small, it can be
ignored. Then, the turbine work done = the compressor work
absorbed, or
C p T02  T01   C p T03  T04 
 Expansion Process in Turbine
• Using definitions of compressor and turbine efficiencies,
 1  1
   
C pT01  p02  
   p04   
   1  C pT03t 1   
c  p01     p03  
   
• Which, on simplification yields

   1
   1
 T01 1  
 02   1 
p 
p04  p03 1 
 p01  
 T03 ct   

• Using this equation and by knowing the ram compression,
compressor pressure ratio and expected pressure drop in the
combustor, the required pressure ratio for the turbine to
produce the power required by the compressor and the inlet
pressure of the exhaust nozzle can be predicted
 Expansion Process in Nozzle
• Exhaust from the turbine enters the propulsion nozzle with a
stagnation pressure and temperature of p04 and T04
respectively.
• The nozzle only converts the
enthalpy of hot gases to kinetic h
energy.
• Since the process is adiabatic, h 04
04
Actual expansion
the stagnation temperature V
W’'
2
e
Isentropic
T 2
2 V
remains constant. W
2
e
expansion
T
pe

• The gases expand adiabatically h e

e
h’ e’
to a static pressure and e

temperature of pe and Te s

respectively.
• The nozzle efficiency is defined as the ratio of the actual
enthalpy drop to the isentropic enthalpy drop.
 Expansion Process in Nozzle
• The nozzle efficiency is used to arrive at the actual exit
velocity from the nozzle.
Ve2
h04  he T04  Te
n  2 2  
V 'e h04  h'e T04  T 'e
2
T04  Te T04  Te
n    1
 T 'e   
T04 1     pe   

 T04  T04 1   p  
  04  
 
 1
 
  pe   
h04  he   nC pT04 1    
  p04  
 
 Expansion Process in Nozzle
• The exhaust velocity of the gases from the nozzle can be
obtained from the following relationship.
Ve2
h04  he 
2
Ve2  2h04  he , or
 1
 
  pe   
Ve  2 nC pT04 1  
2
 
  p04  
 
 1
 
  pe   
Ve  2 nC pT04 1    
  p04  
 
 Gas Turbines for Aircraft Propulsion
•Aircraft gas turbine cycles produce useful power output in the
form of “thrust”.
•Thrust in a turboprop engine is produced by a propeller with a
small contribution from the exhaust nozzle.
•Whole of the thrust in a turbojet or turbofan engine is
generated in propelling nozzles.
•Another important aspect is that the aircraft gas turbine
performance is dependent upon the forward speed and
altitude of the aircraft.
•The designer of aircraft gas turbine engines must recognise the
differing requirements for take-off, climb, cruise, manoeuver
and landing
 Components of gas turbine propulsion
• Following are the components and systems found in a typical
turbojet engine:
• Air intakes
• Subsonic air inlet
• Supersonic air inlet
• Compressors (centrifugal, axial or mixed flow)
• Combustors (can or annular)
• Turbines (impulse, reaction or combination of both)
• Afterburners (generally in military engines)
• Nozzles (or propeller in case of turboprop)
• Thrust reverser
• Cooling system
• Fuel system
• Engine starting system
• Ignition system
• Lubrication system
• Control system
Components of gas turbine propulsion, e.g., Turbofan engine

Cold section Hot section

• Inlet • Combustor
• Fan/Compressor • Turbine
• Casing • Outlet
 Components of gas turbine propulsion, e.g., Turbofan engine

• Cold section:
• Air intake (inlet) — For subsonic aircraft, the inlet is a duct
which ensures smooth airflow into the engine despite air
approaching the inlet from directions other than straight
ahead. This occurs on the ground from cross winds and in
flight with aircraft pitch and yaw motions. The duct length is
minimised to reduce drag and weight. Air enters the
compressor at about half the speed of sound so at flight
speeds lower than this the flow will accelerate along the inlet
and at higher flight speeds it will slow down. Thus the internal
profile of the inlet has to accommodate both accelerating and
decelerating flow without undue losses. For supersonic
aircraft, the inlet has features such as cones to produce
shockwaves which slow down the air from the flight speed to
subsonic velocity at the compressor inlet for efficient
compression.
 Design Configurations with air intake locations

• Nose air-intake
• Used on many early jet fighters with
mid fuselage mounted engines
• Uses long inlet ducts hence high
pressure losses
• Occupies large internal volume Nose air-intake (MIG-21)

• Side air-intake (below the wing)

• Used on modern high wing combat
aircraft
• Nose area free for radome installation
• Wing can be extended above intake
for improved lift performance
High wing side air-intake (Tornado)
 Design Configurations with air intake locations

• Side air-intake (above the wing)

• Used on many low wing trainer and
combat aircraft
• Sharp bends should be avoided to
prevent flow distortions
• Occupies shorter internal volume
Low wing side air-intake (Hawk)
• Nose area free for radome installation

• Ventral air-intake
• Used on high performance combat
aircraft.
• Complicates nose wheel positioning
and stowage
• Prone to debris ingestion and FOD
• Very good manoeuverability Ventral air-intake (F-16)
 Design Configurations with air intake locations

• Dorsal air-intake
• Situated on rear top side of the fuselage
• Only used on aircraft with three engines
• Gives poor performance at high angle of attack due to separated flow
ahead of intake

Dorsal air-intake (DC-10) Dorsal air-intake (L-1011)

 Components of gas turbine propulsion, e.g., Turbofan engine
• Cold section:
• Compressor or Fan - The compressor is made up of stages.
Each stage consists of rotating blades and stationary stators
or vanes. As the air moves through the compressor, its
pressure and temperature increase. The power to drive the
compressor comes from the turbine, as shaft torque and
speed. Compressors can be centrifugal, axial or mixed flow
types.
• Bypass ducts - deliver the flow from the fan with minimum
losses to the bypass propelling nozzle. Alternatively the fan
flow may be mixed with the turbine exhaust before entering a
single propelling nozzle. In another arrangement an
afterburner may be installed between the mixer and nozzle.
• Shaft - The shaft connects the turbine to the compressor,
and runs along the length of the engine. There may be as
many as three concentric shafts, rotating at independent
speeds, with as many sets of turbines and compressors.
Cooling air for the turbines may flow through the shaft from
the compressor.
 Components of gas turbine propulsion

Compressor front fan Centrifugal compressor impeller

Axial compressor Compressor-Turbine rotor assembly

 Components of gas turbine propulsion, e.g., Turbofan engine
• Cold section:
• Diffuser section - The diffuser slows down the compressor
delivery air to reduce flow losses in the combustor. Slower
air is also required to help stabilize the combustion flame
and the higher static pressure improves the combustion
efficiency.
• Hot section:
• Combustor (or combustion chamber) — Fuel is burned
continuously after initially being ignited during the engine
start.
• Turbine – The turbine extracts energy from the hot gases
leaving the combustor. Some of this energy is used to drive
the compressor. Turboprop, turboshaft and turbofan engines
have additional turbine stages to drive a propeller, bypass
fan or helicopter rotor. Cooling air, bled from the
compressor, may be used to cool the turbine blades, vanes
and discs to allow higher turbine entry gas temperatures
without changing the material operating temperature.
 Combustion Chambers

•The combustor receives air from the compressor, separates some of the
flow and mixes it with fuel and ignites it, remixes the combustion
products with remaining air and delivers it to the turbine.
•In order to assure ignition, the mixture of fuel and air should be
stoichiometric and slow moving. However, far more air passes through
the engine than that required for complete combustion of fuel.
•Hence, the combustor first separates a small portion of the air and
decelerates it for combustion in a region called the “Primary Zone”.
•Gases leaving the primary zone are very hot and can not be admitted to
the turbine directly due to possibility of melting of turbine material.
•Therefore, the remaining air (called dilution air) is mixed with the hot
gases from the primary zone to produce uniform, maximum permissible
temperature for the turbine.
 Combustion Chambers

Typical layout of a gas turbine combustion chamber

 Salient Zones in a Combustion Chamber
Diffuser
•Diffuser essentially reduces the inlet velocity to a level tolerable for
reliable ignition of the air-fuel mixture. The total pressure drop within
the combustor consists of two parts:

ptotal  pcold  phot where, pcold refers to drop in diffuser and phot refers
to pressure drops in the zones of actual combustion.

In order to limit the overall pressure loss in the combustor, the diffuser
should be properly shaped to reduce the aerodynamic losses
Primary zone
• The main function of the primary zone is to stabilize the flame and
provide sufficient time, temperature, turbulence to achieve complete
combustion of the incoming air-fuel mixture. Generally, a toroidal flow
reversal pattern is employed to provide continuous ignition.
 Salient Zones in a Combustion Chamber
Intermediate zone
• If the primary zone temperature is more than 2000K, dissociation
occurs producing significant concentrations of CO and H2 in efflux
gases. If these gases directly reach the dilution zone where they are
rapidly cooled, then the composition becomes frozen and CO will be
directly discharged into the atmosphere as a pollutant.
• In the intermediate zone, by addition of small amounts of air, the
temperature of gases coming from primary zone will be decreased to a
level where CO and other unburned hydrocarbons can undergo
complete combustion.
• In early combustor designs, intermediate zone was invariably
provided. With increase in pressure ratios, more air was required for
liner wall cooling and hence the amount of air for intermediate zone
reduced. Therefore, in present day combustors, a clear cut
intermediate zone may not exist.
 Salient Zones in a Combustion Chamber
Dilution zone
• The role of the dilution zone is to provide gas at a temperature that is
uniform and acceptable to the turbine. For this purpose, the air
remaining after combustion and liner cooling is utilized.
• The amount of air available for dilution is usually between 20% and
40% of the total combustor air flow.
• The temperature distribution in the gas exiting from dilution zone is
usually described in terms of “Pattern Factor” or “Temperature
traverse quality”.
• For very high turbine entry temperatures associated with modern
engines, an ideal pattern factor is one which gives minimum
temperature at the turbine blade root where the stresses are
maximum and also at the blade tip to protect seal materials. Therefore
attainment of optimum pattern factor is very important to obtain the
best turbine efficiency.
Typical airflow distribution in a Combustion Chamber
 Components of Combustion Chamber
• Case is the structural outer shell.
• Diffuser reduces the incoming
velocity of air to facilitate
ignition.
• Liner contains the combustion
process and introduces various
air flows like intermediate,
dilution and cooling. Withstands
high temperatures

• Snout is an extension of the dome and serves as an air splitter.

• Dome/Swirler is the region where primary air flows and turbulence is created
to mix fuel with air.
• Fuel injector serves to atomize and feed fuel to primary zone.
• Igniter is a spark plug to initiate combustion.
 Combustion Chambers
• A gas turbine combustor must satisfy a wide range of requirements. Most
important among these are:
• High combustion efficiency – i.e., fuel should be completely burned to
enable conversion of all chemical energy into heat energy.
• Reliable and smooth ignition, both on the ground (especially at cold
temperatures) and after flame-out at high altitude.
• Wide stability limits – i.e., stable flame at varying pressures and mixture
ratios.
• Low pressure loss
• Uniform outlet temperature to maximize turbine life.
• Low emissions of smoke and gaseous pollutants.
• Size and shape compatibility with engine envelope.
• Low cost design and manufacture, minimum weight.
• Multi fuel capability
• Maintainability, durability and reliability.
 Combustion Chambers
Combustor types
• The choice of a particular combustor type and layout is determined by
the overall engine design. There are two basic types of combustor:
• Tubular combustor or Can combustor
• Annular combustor
• A combination of these called “Tubo-annular” or “Can-annular” is also
sometimes used.

Multi Can Combustor

Can-Annular Combustor

Annular Combustor
 Tubular or Can Combustor

Tubular or Can combustor

Can combustor attached to Turbine nozzle housing

Multi- Can combustor
 Tubular or Can Combustor
• A tubular or Can combustor comprises of a cylindrical liner
mounted concentrically inside a cylindrical casing .
• Most of the early jet engines used tubular combustors usually in
numbers varying from 6 to 16 per engine in a circumferential
multi-can arrangement.
• Main advantage of the tubular combustor is its simplicity and
ease of manufacture.
• Main disadvantage of the tubular combustor is its length and
weight which prohibits its use in modern, large thrust aircraft
engines.
• Tubular combustors are generally used in ground based gas
turbine power plants because of its simple construction and ease
of maintenance.
 Annular Combustor
FLAME TUBE COMBUSTOR TURBINE NOZZLE
OUTER CASING GUIDE VANES

HP COMPRESSOR
OUTLET GUIDE VANES

COMBUSTOR
INNER CASING

FUEL SPRAAY
NOZZLE

FUEL MANIFOLD
TURBINE CASING
COMPRESSOR CASING DILUTION AIR MOUNTING FLANGE
MOUNTING FLANGE HOLES
 Annular Combustor
• Annular combustors do away with separate combustion zones
and simply have a continuous liner and casing in a ring (annulus).
• Advantages are:
• More uniform combustion
• Shorter size, less weight and less surface area.
• More uniform exit temperature
• Lowest pressure drop (< 5%) among combustors
• Disadvantage is that testing requires a full size combustor and
sophisticated test rigs.
• Most modern engines incorporate annular combustors
• Current research focuses on improving performance of annular
combustors.
 Can-Annular Combustor
MAIN FUEL MANIFOLD
COMPRESSOR OUTLET
FLANGE JOINT ENGINE FIRE SEAL
COMBUSTION
CHAMBER

AIR CASING

PRIMARY
AIR INLET
DRAIN TUBE

PRIMARY FUEL MANIFOLD INTERCONNECTION

 Can-Annular Combustor

• As the engine pressure ratios started to increase, the Can-Annular

combustion chamber became popular because of the ease with
which the engine needs could be met.
• The design consists of a group of tubular (or can) liners arranged
inside a single annular casing. This concept combines the
compactness of the annular chamber with the mechanical
strength of the tubular chamber.
• A drawback of this combustor is the need for interconnectors
(cross-fire tubes) to equalize the combustion pressure in all the
chambers.
 Characteristics of combustion chambers
• The requirements for optimum combustion must be met at
certain critical aircraft operating conditions such as flight speed,
cruising at altitude, acceleration during take-off etc. Therefore,
specific parameters are used to describe combustion chamber
characteristics.
Efficiency of combustion
• Complete combustion of fuel can not be achieved in practice,
particularly with respect to the wide ranging aircraft operating
conditions. Therefore, for combustion of unit mass of fuel, less
heat is produced than theoretical estimate. The degree of actual
usage of fuel is characterized by a combustion efficiency factor.

Actual heat released , Qactual

Combustion efficiency 
Theoretical heat available, Qtheoretical
 Characteristics of combustion chambers
• Modern combustion chambers achieve efficiencies between 90 and
98%. Values could be improved if stoichiometric combustion were
possible, which is not yet achievable.
• Another important combustor performance parameter is the total
pressure loss because in a gas turbine cycle, the aim is to attain
combustion at constant pressure. Some pressure loss is unavoidable in
creating turbulence that is necessary for proper mixing of fuel and air.
Designers will strive to minimize pressure loss. However, in modern
combustors, it is common to have 2 to 7% pressure loss.
Stable operating range
• Within the complete operating envelope of an aircraft engine ranging
from flight idle thrust to max take-off thrust , and from sea level static
pressure to low pressure at altitude, extinction of flame in the
combustion chamber must be prevented.
 Characteristics of combustion chambers
• According to varying operating conditions, following quantities change at
combustor entry:
• Static pressure
• Static temperature
• Air flow velocity
• The stable operating range is usually characterized by a permissible margin of
the air/fuel ratio at which stable combustion is maintained.
Temperature distribution
• Optimum engine performance will be achieved if the average temperature of
the hot gas is as close as possible to the temperature tolerable for the turbine
blades.
• If the temperature distribution is non uniform and hot spots exist in the gas
stream, the turbine entry temperature must be reduced to protect the turbine.
This step reduces the engine efficiency.
• A more intensive air-fuel mixing to prevent hot spots reduces combustor
efficiency.
 Characteristics of combustion chambers
Starting
• Ignition of the fuel/air mixture is easier if pressure and temperature are high
and flow velocity is low.
• Ignition will not occur if the fuel/air mixture is too lean or too rich.

Combustor entry temperature

Mixture Mixture

Combustor entry velocity

Combustor entry pressure

too lean too rich

Stable Stable
operation operation
Stable
operation
Mixture
too rich
Mixture Mixture Mixture
too lean Stoichiometric ratio too lean too rich

Fuel-Air ratio, λ Fuel-Air ratio, λ Fuel-Air ratio, λ

Factors affecting flame stability

Deposits
• In the case of rich mixtures, tendency for carbon deposit is more because of
insufficient oxygen for combustion.
• Non uniform air/fuel ratio across combustor will lead to carbon deposit at
specific locations within the combustor.
 Fuel injection in combustion chambers
• Normal liquid fuels are not sufficiently volatile to produce vapour in the
required amounts for ignition and combustion.
• Therefore, liquid fuels are atomized into a large number of droplets with
corresponding increased surface area. The smaller the drop size, the faster
the rate of evaporation.
• Fuel spray quality affects flame stability, combustion efficiency and
pollutant emission levels. Basically there are two broad groups of fuel
injectors:

Pressure-Swirl Atomizers
• Here, the fuel is atomized by forcing it under pressure through specially
designed orifice that causes the fuel to swirl before the discharge orifice.
• A major design problem is to achieve good atomization over a fuel flow
range of about 40:1. Too small an orifice will have good atomization at low
flow rates but requires excessive pressure drop at high flow rates. Too large
an orifice will not effectively atomize at low flow rates.
 Fuel injection in combustion chambers
• A dual-orifice atomizer is employed to overcome this problem. It
consists of two swirl chambers, one of which (called pilot) is located
concentrically within the other (called main).
• In a dual-orifice atomizer, a small orifice feeds fuel to a small swirl
chamber that meets low fuel flow rates of the engine. As fuel flow is
increased by increasing the fuel pressure, when a pre-determined
pressure is reached, a valve opens to admit fuel to the main atomizer.
This arrangement allows satisfactory atomization to be achieved over a
wide range of fuel flows.

Single orifice fuel atomizer Dual orifice fuel atomizer

 Fuel injection in combustion chambers
• Principal advantages of pressure-swirl atomizers are good mechanical
reliability and ability to sustain combustion at very weak mixture
strengths.
• Main disadvantages of pressure-swirl atomizers are blockage of small flow
passages and orifices by contaminants in the fuel and tendency for soot
formation at high combustion pressures.

Airblast atomizer
• Here, the concept is to make the fuel at low pressure to flow over a lip
located in a high-velocity air stream. As the fuel flows over the lip, it is
atomized by the air which then enters the combustion zone along with fuel
droplets.

Airblast fuel atomizer Pre mix-pre vapourize type fuel atomizer

 Components of gas turbine propulsion, integrated

Combustor Nozzle

Air intake Axial compressor Centrifugal compressor H.P. Turbine L.P. Turbine
 Components of gas turbine propulsion, e.g., Turbofan engine
• Hot section:
• Afterburner (or reheat) — (mainly military) Produces extra
thrust by burning fuel in the jetpipe. This reheating of the
turbine exhaust gas raises the propelling nozzle entry
temperature and exhaust velocity. The nozzle area is
increased to accommodate the higher specific volume of the
exhaust gas. This maintains the same airflow through the
engine to ensure no change in its operating characteristics.
• Exhaust (or nozzle) — Turbine exhaust gases pass through
the propelling nozzle to produce a high velocity jet. The
nozzle is usually convergent with a fixed flow area.
• Supersonic nozzle — For high nozzle pressure ratios (Nozzle
Entry Pressure/Ambient Pressure) a convergent-divergent
nozzle is used. The expansion to atmospheric pressure and
supersonic gas velocity continues downstream of the throat
and produces more thrust.
 Propeller and Jet Propulsion

A propeller pushes a
large mass of cold air
backwards at low
velocity to produce
forward thrust
F = ma

A jet engine pushes a

smaller mass of hot
gases backwards at
high velocity to
produce forward thrust
F = ma
 Fluid flow equations

• Aerodynamics is primarily concerned with three fundamental

conservation equations relating to mass, energy and momentum.
• Conservation of mass flow (or continuity equation)
• Essence is that the mass flow rate of a fluid flowing through an
ideal passage is always constant. Therefore,
m  AV ; or, m  1 A1V1  2 A2V2
Here, m is the fluid mass flow rate (kg/s); ρ is the fluid density
(kg/m3); A is the effective flow area (m2) and V is the velocity of
flow (m/s)

If M < 0.3, ρ is also assumed to

be constant (incompressible
flow) and the equation reduces
to

A1V1  A2V2
 Fluid flow equations
• Conservation of energy (or Bernoulli’s equation)
• Essence is that in a steady, inviscid fluid flow, the sum of all
forms of mechanical energy in that fluid remains constant. This
requires that the sum of kinetic and potential energies remain
constant. Mathematically,
p V2 p = Static pressure
  z  Constant, or
g 2 g ρ = Fluid mass density
V = Flow velocity
1 1
p1  1V1  1 gz1  p2   2V2   2 gz2  Constant
2 2
z = Relative elevation
2 2

Static Dynamic Elevation Total

pressure pressure pressure pressure
1 2 3

When Mach number Higher Lower Higher

M<0.3, ρ1=ρ2=ρ since flow

pressure pressure pressure

is considered
incompressible under
subsonic flow.
 Fluid flow equations
• Conservation of momentum
• Essentially Newton’s 2nd and 3rd laws of motion:
• 2nd law - The rate of change of momentum is proportional to
the applied force and takes place in the direction along
which it acts.
• 3rd law – To every action there is an equal and opposite
reaction.
Its primary use is concerned with the analysis of propeller
and jet thrust, helicopter rotor thrust etc..
Application of Bernoulli’s principle to aircraft wing
Lower pressure is created by the increased speed of air over the wing

Lift force

Higher pressure is created by the slower speed of air under the wing

Low Pressure
Lift force

High Pressure
 Propellers
•The purpose of a propeller is to convert
power delivered by a rotating shaft into
thrust.
•A propeller produces thrust by
accelerating a large mass of air to a higher
velocity. The effectiveness with which a
propeller performs this function is known
as “Propeller Efficiency”.
•The aircraft propeller consists of two or
more blades and a central hub to which
the blades are attached.
•Each blade of a propeller is essentially a
rotating wing. As a result of their
construction, the propeller blades are like
aerofoils and produce thrust to pull or
push the aircraft through air.
 Propellers
• An aircraft moving through the air creates
a drag force opposing its movement. Propeller
diameter
• In order to fly, an aircraft must produce a
force equal to the drag but acting
forward. This force is called “Thrust”.
• The engine rotates the aerofoils of the
blades at high speed through the air to
produce thrust.
• Important characteristics of a propeller
are its diameter and pitch.
• The diameter is the diameter of the circle
in which the propeller rotates.
• The pitch is a measure of how far the
propeller would move forwards in one
revolution if it were treated as a screw.
 Propellers
• As in a wing, the leading edge is the thick
edge of the blade that meets the air as the
propeller rotates.
• Blade angle, is the angle between the chord
and the plane of rotation and is measured at
specific points along the length of the blade.

• To understand the action of a propeller, consider first, its motion which is both
rotational and forward.
• Because of the rotational and forward motion, the relative wind velocity vector
strikes the blade at an angle of attack.
• The air deflection produced by the angle of attack causes the dynamic pressure
at the engine side to be higher than the atmospheric pressure. This pressure
differential acting on the blade area produces thrust.
• Generally, the angle of attack is small (~2 to 4˚) and remains constant along the
blade length. Hence the blade has twist along its length.
 General thrust equation for jet engines
• Schematic shows a thrust producing device (aerospace engine) which is
assumed to be stationary and the surrounding atmospheric air is assumed
to flow past it.
• The imaginary control surface has large cross sectional areas A1 and A2 at
entry and exit, with outlet plane of the control surface passing through the
exit plane of the engine.

Control surface
A1 A2
Engine Casing mf
Ai Ae
Ve

ma,Vo me= ma+ mf

x
Direction of flight
pa pe

pa

Control volume enclosing thrust device

 General thrust equation
• The sides of the control surface are far removed from the engine and
therefore it can be assumed that A1=A2.
• The flow through the engine (internal flow) is separated from the flow
through the surroundings (external flow) by the solid boundary of engine
casing.
• Since engine is assumed to be stationary, the fluid seems to flow towards it
with a velocity of V0 which is the velocity of the engine in the still
atmosphere.
• Since we are interested in finding an equation for thrust, F, developed in the
direction of flight of the engine, the longitudinal axis is taken as x-direction,
so that only the change in momentum in the x-direction needs to be
considered.
• Ambient air enters the control volume at a pressure pa and velocity V0. Part
of the air, ma captured by the inlet area of the engine Ai forms the internal
flow.
 General thrust equation

• After undergoing momentum change, the air, along with the added fuel
mass mf leaves the engine in the form of exhaust gases such that me=ma+mf.
• The exhaust gases leave the engine with a velocity Ve and a pressure pe.
• For the flow external to the engine, there is no change in fluid momentum
as it is assumed that there is no change in fluid velocity.
• Applying the equation for conservation of momentum,
0

F  mV Control Volume  mV out  mV in
t
F  mV out  mV in
 General thrust equation
• Since the momentum change occurs only for the internal flow through the
engine,
mV out  mV in  meVe  maV0
• The algebraic sum of forces acting on the control volume, ΣF constitutes the
body force, the normal surface forces and shear surface forces. The normal
surface force is due to the pressure force at inlet and exit of the engine and
is given by pa Ai  pe Ae
• The remaining surface forces on the control volume can be combined and
called as enclosure force, which is the vector sum of friction forces and the
pressure forces by the engine casing on the fluid within the control volume.
Let the x-component of this enclosure force be called Fenc. Hence,
• Substituting in the momentum equation, we get, F  Fenc  pa Ai  pe Ae

F  Fenc  pa Ai  pe Ae  meVe  maV0

or , Fenc   pe Ae  meVe    pa Ai  maV0   Fint
 General thrust equation

• According to Newton’s third law, the internal force exerted on the duct by
the fluid is equal to the internal force acting on the fluid Fenc. Hence we get
the internal force on the propulsive device (engine).
• The net force on the duct is the sum of this internal force due to passage of
fluid through the engine and the external force due to the ambient
pressure. i.e.,
Fext  pa  A2  Ae   pa  A1  Ai , or because A2  A1 ;
Fext  pa  A1  Ae   pa  A1  Ai 
Fext  pa  Ai  Ae 
• The propulsive thrust on the duct is therefore the net force due to the
internal and external forces acting on the device (engine).
Thrust  F  Fint  Fext  meVe  maV0  pe Ae  pa Ai  pa Ae  pa Ai
F  meVe  maV0  Ae  pe  pa 

Momentum thrust Pressure thrust

 General thrust equation

•This equation gives the thrust on a propulsive device in uniform

motion with a steady flow of working fluid, having uniform
properties over the inlet and exit regions of the engine and
uniform ambient pressure.
•It can be observed that the net thrust developed consists of
two parts – the momentum thrust and pressure thrust.
• For low exit velocities, pe  pa, so that the pressure thrust
disappears.
• For high exit velocities, pe  pa, and therefore, the pressure
thrust has to be considered.
• In most cases, the pressure thrust developed is small
compared to the momentum thrust and can be neglected
for simple calculations.
 Jet power or Thrust power

• The thrust developed by a jet engine overcomes the drag of the aircraft and
in doing so, does work, called the jet or thrust power. Thrust power = Net
thrust x Forward speed of the aircraft.

Thrust Power  F  V0
PT  ma Ve  V0 V0 ; and precisely, if fuel flow is also considered,

PT  ma 1  f Ve  V0 V0

• Since V0 is a variable, the thrust power of a jet engine does not have the
same meaning as the shaft power of a propeller engine.
• In a propeller engine, the shaft power is the power developed by its
reciprocating or turbine engine which is used for driving the propeller to
produce thrust.
 Propulsive power
• Propulsive power is defined as the energy imparted to the fluid for
propulsion. In other words, it is the power available in the working fluid
(combustion gases) as it enters the propulsive nozzle.
• Out of the available power, some energy is lost in the nozzle exit gases in
the form of absolute velocity. The remaining appears as the engine thrust.
• Hence, propulsive power = Thrust power + K.E. of exhaust gases
corresponding to absolute velocity.
• The absolute velocity of exhaust gases is the vector sum of the relative jet
velocity Ve and the forward velocity of the vehicle V0, in scalar terms,
Vabs=Ve-Va.

PP  PT  Absolute K .E. of the jet

PP  ma 1  f Ve  V0 V0  ma Ve  V0 

1 2

2
 Propulsive power

• If the effect of fuel addition is ignored, the equation becomes,

PP  ma Ve  V0 V0  ma Ve  V0 

1 2

2
1 1
PP  maVe2  maV02
2 2
1

PP  ma Ve2  V02
2


• This means that the propulsive power is the difference between kinetic
energy of jet at exit and the kinetic energy of fluid at inlet to the engine.
 Propulsive Efficiency
• Propulsive efficiency is a measure of the effectiveness with which the
kinetic energy imparted to the fluid is transformed into useful work.
• The kinetic energy imparted to the fluid is the propulsive power.
• The fluid kinetic energy transformed into work is the thrust power of the
propulsive device (engine)
• Therefore,

PT ma 1  f Ve  V0 V0

p  
PP K .E. of fluid at outlet   K .E. of fluid at inlet 
ma 1  f Ve  V0 V0
p 
Ve2 V02
ma 1  f   ma
2 2
p 
1  f Ve  V0 V0
Ve2 V02
1  f  
2 2
 Speed Ratio
• The power and efficiency of a propulsive system depends on the jet velocity
and flight velocity of the vehicle.
• The efficiency of the propulsion system is sometimes presented in terms of
the ratio of the two velocities, termed speed ratio.
• Speed ratio (r) is defined as the ratio of flight velocity to the exit jet velocity
from the propulsive nozzle.
V0
r
Ve
• For a jet engine, if the fuel mass added is ignored, the equation for
propulsive efficiency becomes, ηp is zero when speed ratio is zero,
i.e., when flight velocity is zero. It
2Ve  V0 V0
then increases with r and is
2V0
P   maximum when r=1
Ve  V0
2 2
Ve  V0
2V0 Ve 2V0 Ve  2r
P   ; or ,  P 
Ve  V0  Ve 1  V0 Ve  1 r
 Speed Ratio
• According to the preceding equation, propulsive efficiency (ηP) is zero when
speed ratio (r) is zero, that is when the flight velocity (V0) is zero.
• Propulsive efficiency increases with speed ratio and becomes maximum
when the speed ratio = 1, that is, when the exit jet velocity is equal to the
velocity of the aircraft.
• But according to the thrust equation, F = ma(Ve-Va), thrust becomes zero for
the above condition and hence no useful work will be obtained.
• The equation for thrust power in terms of speed ratio (r) is,

PT  ma 1  f Ve  V0 V0

 V0  V0
PT  m V 1  f   
a e
2

 Ve  Ve
PT  maVe2 1  f   r r or, neglecting fuel addition, PT  maVe2 1  r  r
 Condition for maximum thrust power

• To obtain the condition for maximum thrust power (PT), the equation can be
differentiated with respect to r and equated to zero. By doing so, it can be
observed that the maximum thrust occurs at r = 0.5; that is, when the flight
speed is 50% of the speed of exhaust jet. The corresponding value of
propulsive efficiency is,
2r 2  0.5
p    0.667
max
1  r 1  0.5
• This analysis reveals that the condition for maximum efficiency and
maximum thrust are different. Therefore, some kind of trade-off and
compromise is needed to achieve reasonable thrust with good propulsive
efficiency.
 Thermal efficiency of jet engines
• The useful output of the engine thermodynamic cycle is the energy
available for propulsion at the entry to the propulsive nozzle, which is
denoted as the propulsive power.
• In order to achieve propulsive power, chemical energy of the fuel is the
input to the system by way of combustion.
• Since the vehicle will be in motion, the kinetic energy due to motion of the
vehicle also should be considered as an input to the thermodynamic cycle.
• Thus, the thermal efficiency, which is an indication of the degree of
utilization of input energy in imparting propulsive power, is defined as,

Propulsive Power
th 
Total energy input to the system
Propulsive Power
th 
Fuel flow rate  calorific value of fuel   K .E. of fuel
 Thermal efficiency of jet engines
 Ve2 V02 
ma 1  f   
th  
2 2  1  f V 2
 V 2

1  f V 2
 V 2

 
e 0 e 0

   2
1 mf f 2Q V
m f Q f  m f V02
2Q f  V0 2 f 0
2 ma
• If the fuel addition is ignored,
Ve2  V02
th 
f 2Q f  V02 
• In addition, if the K.E. of the fuel is ignored,

Ve2  V02
th 
2 fQ f
• This equation can also be written in terms of speed ratio as,

V 1  V V   V 1  r  For a given fuel, fuel-air ratio and jet velocity,

V V
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
th  e 0
 e 0 e e the thermal efficiency increases with decrease
in r, indicating a trend opposite to that of
2 fQ f 2 fQ f 2 fQ f propulsive efficiency.
 Overall efficiency of jet engines
• The overall efficiency of a propulsive device is the ratio of useful work done
by the device to the energy supplied to the device. It is the product of
propulsive efficiency and thermal efficiency.
ma 1  f Ve  V0 V0
 o   p th 
 1 
m f  Q f  V02 
 2 

• Since the actual energy supplied is the chemical energy of the fuel, it is the
usual practice to show overall efficiency by neglecting kinetic energy of the
fuel.

ma 1  f Ve  V0 V0

o  Dividing numerator and denominator by ma,
mf Qf

o 
1  f Ve  V0 V0
fQ f
 Overall efficiency of jet engines

• If the effect of fuel addition in the flow rate is neglected, then,

o 
Ve  V0 V0
fQf
• In terms of speed ratio, the expression for overall efficiency can be written
as,


Ve2 1  r 2
 o   p th  
   2r  Ve 1  r r
2

1  r  
 2 fQ f  fQ f
 Turboprop Engine
•Turbine develops shaft power to drive a compressor and a
propeller. Propeller provides thrust for flight.
•The engine consists of a propeller, reduction gear box,
compressor, combustion chamber and gas turbine.
•The gas turbine is most efficient while running at high speed and
propeller is most efficient while running at low speed, a
reduction gear box is necessary to ensure efficient operation of
both.
 Turboprop Engine, Advantages and Limitations
• Advantages:
•High propulsive efficiency
•Low thrust based specific fuel consumption
•High acceleration at lower speeds enables takeoff from short
runways
•Variable flight speed and thrust reversal possible by varying
propeller blade angle
•Attractive for short distance, low speed (< 600 km/h) flight
• Limitations:
•Low payload capacity due to heavy propeller and gear box
•Gear box is an additional component
•Efficiency decreases beyond 600 km/h speed
•Higher drag due to larger frontal area
•Requires high landing gear to provide ground clearance to propeller
 Turbojet Engine
•Turbojet engine derives thrust by highly accelerating a small mass
of air, all of which goes through the engine.
•Since a high jet velocity is required, the turbine of a turbojet
extracts only enough power from combustion products to drive
the compressor and accessories. Remaining high energy
combustion products pass through a nozzle to produce reaction
thrust.
•The engine consists of compressor, combustion chamber, turbine
and thrust nozzle.
 Turbojet Engine, Advantages and Limitations

• Advantages:
•Lesser drag due to lower frontal area
•Suitable for long distance flight at high altitude and high speed
•Thrust augmentation possible
•Lower weight per unit thrust when compared to turboprop engine
• Limitations:
•Propulsive efficiency decreases at lower speeds
•Thrust based specific fuel consumption is higher at lower speeds
and lower altitudes
•Not economical for short duration flights
•Slower acceleration and hence requires longer runways
•Difficult to achieve sudden decrease of speed
 Turbofan Engine
• Turbofan is a type of jet engine that provides thrust by using a combination of
a ducted fan and a jet exhaust nozzle.
• Part of the airstream from the ducted fan goes through the core to produce
hot gases similar to turbojet. Rest of the air bypasses the engine core and
mixes with the high velocity hot gases thus reducing noise significantly.
• The engine consists of a ducted fan, compressor, combustion chamber, turbine
and thrust nozzle.
• Ratio of bypass air mass to core air mass is called “Bypass Ratio” and it varies
from 0.5 to 6
Bypass air

Hot core jet

 Turbofan Engine, Advantages and Limitations
• Advantages:
•Increased thrust at speeds similar to turboprop results in relatively
short takeoff. Good thrust capability until close to Mach no.=1
•Considerable reduction in noise (10-20%) compared to turbojet
reduces acoustic fatigue on aircraft components
•Superior to turbojet in “hot day” performance
• Limitations:
•Engine weight more than turbojet (but lower than turboprop
engine)
•Thrust based specific fuel consumption is more that of turbojet (but
lower than that of turboprop)
•Ground clearance required is more than that for turbojet (but
lesser than that for turboprop)
•Two thrust reversers are required if the fan air and primary engine
air exit through separate nozzles
 Ramjet Engine

• Very high pressure ratios of about 8 to 10 can be obtained

by ram compression to design a jet engine without a
mechanical compressor.
• A deceleration of the air from Mach number 3 at diffuser
inlet to Mach number 0.3 in combustion chamber would
cause pressure ratio of more than 30.
• Due to shock and other losses inevitable at such high
velocities, all of this pressure rise can not be realised in
practice but whatever that is obtained is sufficient for use
as combustion pressure.
• The ram pressure can be achieved in diffusers.
 The Ramjet Engine
1 2 3 4

A Ramjet consists of:

• Supersonic and subsonic

diffuser.
• Fuel injector and flame
stabiliser
• Combustion chamber
• Supersonic exhaust nozzle

The compression for

combustion entirely comes
from the diffusion of the air
stream and shock waves from
the nose cone.
Ramjet cycle on T-S diagram
 The Ramjet Engine

• Most ramjets operate at supersonic flight speeds and use one or

more conical (or oblique) shock waves, terminated by a strong
normal shock, to slow down the airflow to a subsonic velocity at
the exit of the intake. Further diffusion is then required to get the
air velocity down to a suitable level for the combustor.
• Subsonic ramjets don't need such a sophisticated inlet since the
airflow is already subsonic and a simple inlet is usually used.
 The Ramjet Engine

Ideal efficiency of ramjet engine:

Following assumptions are made in
analysing the cycle efficiency:

• Steady one-dimensional flow

• Isentropic compression and
expansion (Δs = 0; Δp0 = 0)
• Perfect gas
• Constant pressure heat addition in
the combustion chamber (p2 = p3)
• Very low Mach number in the
combustion chamber (p2 = p02 = p03 )
 The Ramjet Engine

• Compression and expansion processes in a ramjet are

different from those for a turbojet engine. These
processes experience only energy transformation as
there is no compressor or turbine for energy transfer.
• Thrust work is obtained from the energy supplied by the
fuel during process 2-3.
• Heat is rejected during process 4-1 outside the engine.
• However, the ideal efficiency of the ramjet is still given by
the equation
1
ideal  1   1
PR 
 The Ramjet Engine
• Here, the temperature ratio, with the above assumptions
is given by,
T2 T02  1 2
  1 M1
T1 T1 
• Substituting the value of temperature ratio in the equation
for efficiency,
 1
M 12
1
ideal  1  2
 1 2  1 2
1 M1 1  M1
2 2
or ,

 f M 1 
1
ideal 
2 1
1
  1 M 12
 The Ramjet Engine
•The equation shows that the efficiency increases with the flight Mach
number (for e.g., 76.19% at M1 = 4).
• Thee actual thermal efficiency of the ramjet will be much lower than
the ideal due to losses associated with supersonic flows.

Advantages of ramjets
• Ramjet is simple in construction and does not have any moving parts.
It is inexpensive to produce and requires almost no maintenance.
• Because of absence of turbine, the allowable temperature in a ramjet
is very high (approx 2000°C) as compared to about 1700°C in turbojet
engines with complicated turbine cooling methods.
• The specific fuel consumption is very high at lower speeds but better
than other gas turbine engines at high speeds and high altitudes.
• Theoretically, there seems to be no upper limit to the flight speed of
ramjet but efficiency decreases beyond about Mach 6 due to issues
related to diffusion of working fluid.
• It is independent of fuel technology and a wide range of liquid, and
even solid fuels can be used.
• Its fuel consumption decreases with flight speed (Mach no. 2-5) and
therefore, it is suitable for propelling supersonic missiles.
 The Ramjet Engine
Limitations of ramjets

• Ramjet can not give static thrust. That is, it requires a

minimum speed to start. Therefore, it is not possible to start a
ramjet without an external launching device.
• The engine heavily relies on diffuser for compression of air. It
is very difficult to design a diffuser which will give good
pressure recovery over a wide range of speeds.
• Due to high speed of air, the combustion chamber requires
flame holder to stabilise the combustion.
• At very high temperatures like 2000°C, dissociation of
combustion products occurs. This reduces the efficiency of
ramjet if not recovered in the nozzle during expansion.
• Its fuel consumption is comparatively vary large for its
application in aircraft propulsion or in missiles at low and
moderate speeds.
 The Ramjet Engine

Marquardt ramjet engine from a BOMARC missile

 The Ramjet Engine

The BrahMos ramjet assisted supersonic missile

 The Scramjet Engine
• Speeds greater than Mach 5 are called hypersonic, equivalent to
about 1.5 km/s or about 5400 km/h at sea level.
• A regular passenger plane flies at Mach 0.8 while military jets fly at
about Mach 2.
• The scramjet engine is the key enabling technology for sustained
hypersonic flight.
• Propelled by this special type of air-breathing engine, a high
performance hypersonic craft might even be able to fly into
orbit.
• Scramjet is a supersonic combustion ramjet in which the air
flow through the whole engine remains supersonic.
• Like ramjets, scramjets are not capable of producing static
thrust. They are only good for sustaining hypersonic speeds
and not for achieving them from zero.
• Because ramjets and scramjets can not operate efficiently below
Mach 2 or 3, a third type of propulsion – perhaps a turbojet or rocket
– is required for take off and to propel the vehicle until sufficient
speed is achieved for ramjet or scramjet to operate.
 The Scramjet Engine

Schematic diagram of a scramjet

Advantages of scramjets
• All the advantages of ramjet are valid for scramjets also.

Limitations of scramjets
• It requires launching device at supersonic speed
• It is unsuitable for subsonic speeds
• It has low thermal efficiency and high TSFC
• Its maximum operating altitude is limited
 The Scramjet Engine

The American Hyper-X Program is the first aircraft to demonstrate

an airframe-integrated, scramjet-powered free flight. Scramjets
(supersonic combustor ramjets) are ramjet engines in which the
airflow through the whole engine remains supersonic.
The Hyper-X programme
The Hyper-X programme
 The Boeing X-51 Scramjet demo aircraft

The X-51 had its first successful

flight on 26 May 2010. It reached a
maximum speed of Mach 5 at an
altitude of 21 km and flew for 200
s against planned 300 s. The flight
had the longest scramjet burn
time of 140 s.
Performance of different propulsion systems