part-2Final-Chapter 3 - Intensity Transformations and Spatial Filtering-Updates

1
3.3 Histogram Processing
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2 Histogram Processing
3.1- Background
3.2- Some Basic Intensity Histogram Modification

Transformation Functions
3,3- Histogram Processing Histogram Equalization

3.4- Fundamentals of Spatial
Filtering Adaptive Contrast Enhancement (ACE)
3.5 - Smoothing Spatial Filters
Histogram Matching (Specification)
3.6- Sharpening Spatial Filters
3.7- Combining Spatial Local Histogram Processing

Enhancement Tools
3.8- Using Fuzzy Techniques for Using Histogram Statistics for Image Enhancement
Intensity Transformations and
Spatial Filtering
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Histogram Processing
3 (What is Histogram?)
A histogram is an accurate representation of the distribution of
numerical data. It is an estimate of the probability distribution
of a continuous variable (quantitative variable)
3.1- Background
3.2- Some Basic Intensity Histogram:

h(rk)=nk
3,3- Histogram Processing
Where rk is the kth gray level and nk is the number of
3.4- Fundamentals of Spatial pixels in the image having gray level rk
Filtering
3.5 - Smoothing Spatial Filters Normalized histogram:

3.6- Sharpening Spatial Filters P(rk)=nk/n
3.7- Combining Spatial
Enhancement Tools
Histogram of an image represents the relative frequency of
occurrence of various gray levels in the image
3.8- Using Fuzzy Techniques
for Intensity Transformations
and Spatial Filtering
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4
Histogram Examples
3.1- Background
3.2- Some Basic Intensity

Dark image
Components of histogram
3.4- Fundamentals of Spatial are concentrated on the low
Filtering side of the gray scale.
3.6- Sharpening Spatial Filters Bright image

Components of histogram
Enhancement Tools are concentrated on the high
side of the gray scale.
3.8- Using Fuzzy Techniques for
Spatial Filtering
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Histogram Examples
5
3.1- Background

Low-contrast image
Histogram is narrow and
3.4- Fundamentals of Spatial centered toward the middle
Filtering of the gray scale

High-contrast image
Histogram covers broad range
of the gray scale and the
Enhancement Tools distribution of pixels is not too
far from uniform, with very few
3.8- Using Fuzzy Techniques for vertical lines being much higher
Intensity Transformations and than the others
Spatial Filtering
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6 Why Histogram?
3.1- Background
3.2- Some Basic Intensity x 10

4
Transformation Functions 4
3.5
3,3- Histogram Processing 3
2.5
2
1.5
Filtering
1
0.5
3.5 - Smoothing Spatial Filters 0
0 50 100 150 200 250

It is a baby in the cradle!
Enhancement Tools
Histogram information reveals that image is under-exposed
Spatial Filtering
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7
Why Histogram?
3.1- Background

7000
3,3- Histogram Processing 6000
5000
4000
Filtering
3000
3.5 - Smoothing Spatial Filters 2000
1000
3.6- Sharpening Spatial Filters 0
0 50 100 150 200 250
3.7- Combining Spatial Over-exposed image

Enhancement Tools

Spatial Filtering
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17 Histogram Equalization
As the low-contrast image’s histogram is narrow and
centered toward the middle of the gray scale, if we
distribute the histogram to a wider range the quality of the
image will be improved.
3.1- Background

We can do it by adjusting the probability density function
Transformation Functions of the original histogram of the image so that the
probability spread equally

Low-contrast image
Filtering
Histogram is narrow and
3.5 - Smoothing Spatial Filters centered toward the middle
of the gray scale
High-contrast image
3.7- Combining Spatial Histogram covers broad range
Enhancement Tools of the gray scale and the
distribution of pixels is not too
3.8- Using Fuzzy Techniques for far from uniform, with very few
Spatial Filtering vertical lines being much higher
than the others 4/28/2019
Histogram equalization:
s  T (r ), 0  r  1
r  T 1 ( s), 0  s  1
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Histogram Equalization
3.1- Background


Filtering

Enhancement Tools

Spatial Filtering
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20
 In probability theory, a probability density function (PDF), or density of a
continuous random variable, is a function, whose value at any given
sample (or point) in the sample space (the set of possible values taken by
the random variable)
 It can be interpreted as providing a relative likelihood that the value of the
random variable would equal that sample.
 A probability density function is most commonly associated with absolutely

continuous univariate distributions. A random variable X has density fX,
where fX is a non-negative Lebesgue-integrable function, if:
Hence, if FX is the cumulative distribution function of X, then:
and (if fX is continuous at x)

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21
3.1- Background Probability density functions (PDF):
3.2- Some Basic Intensity dr

Transformation Functions p s ( s )  pr ( r )
ds
r
3.4- Fundamentals of Spatial s  T (r )  ( L  1) pr (w)dw
0
Filtering
 ( L  1)   pr ( w)dw  ( L  1) pr (r )
3.5 - Smoothing Spatial Filters ds dT (r ) d r

3.6- Sharpening Spatial Filters dr dr dr  0 

1
Enhancement Tools ps ( s ) 
L 1
Intensity Transformations and k k nj
Spatial Filtering sk  T (rk )  ( L  1) pr (rj ) ( L  1) , k  0,4/28/2019
1,2,..., L  1
j 0 j 0 n
3.1- Background


Filtering

Enhancement Tools

Spatial Filtering
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23
Histogram:
h(rk)=nk
Where rk is the kth gray level and nk is the number of pixels in the
image having gray level rk
Normalized histogram: P(rk)=nk/n
Histogram of an image represents the relative frequency of occurrence of
various gray levels in the image where n is the total size of image=M*N=64*64
K=0,1,2….7 (gray level image, intensity=2^3= 8, histogram values for 3 bit)
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3.1- Background


Filtering

Enhancement Tools

Spatial Filtering
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3.1- Background

Before After

Filtering The quality is
not improved
3.5 - Smoothing Spatial Filters much because
the original
image already
3.7- Combining Spatial has a broaden
Enhancement Tools gray-level
scale
Spatial Filtering
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Histogram
Cumulative
Normalized Histogram
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transformed intensity
gk = (L-1) * T(k).
To encompass the
whole dynamic range.
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30
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31
3.1- Background


Filtering

Enhancement Tools

Spatial Filtering
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34
3.1- Background



Enhancement Tools
Spatial Filtering
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Adaptive
35
Contrast Enhancement (ACE)
3.1- Background


Filtering

Enhancement Tools

Spatial Filtering
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Adaptive Contrast Enhancement (ACE)
36
3.1- Background


Filtering

Enhancement Tools

Spatial Filtering
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37
Adaptive Contrast Enhancement
(ACE)
3.1- Background


Filtering

Enhancement Tools

Spatial Filtering
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Adaptive
38
Contrast Enhancement (ACE)
3.1- Background


Filtering

Enhancement Tools

Spatial Filtering
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39
3.1- Background



Enhancement Tools
Spatial Filtering
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40
Histogram equalization produces a transformation function that is adaptive in
the sense that it is based on the histogram of a given image.
Histogram equalization obtains enhancement by spreading the levels of the

input image over wider range of the intensity scales.
Histogram equalization has a disadvantage which is that it can generate only one type
of output image.
With Histogram Specification, we can specify the shape of the histogram that we wish
the output image to have.
It doesn’t have to be a uniform histogram
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41
3.1- Background

Transformation Functions Given a desired histogram, the goal is to transform the
image intensity such that the transformed image has a
3,3- Histogram Processing histogram matches the desired histogram.
3.4- Fundamentals of Spatial Let the initial image histogram be pr, the desired image
Filtering histogram be pz.
Let T be the function that equalizes the original image and
3.6- Sharpening Spatial Filters G be the function that equalizes the desired image.
– r: The initial image intensity.
3.7- Combining Spatial – s: The image intensity after equalization
Enhancement Tools
– z: The image intensity of the desired image.
3.8- Using Fuzzy Techniques for – v: The image intensity after equalization of the
Intensity Transformations and desired image.
Spatial Filtering
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3.1- Background
3.2- Some Basic Intensity Histogram matching (specification)

r
s  T (r )  ( L  1)  pr ( w)dw
0
Filtering
z
3.5 - Smoothing Spatial Filters G( z )  ( L  1)  pz (t )dt  s
0
3.7- Combining Spatial z  G 1 ( s)  G 1[T (r )]

Enhancement Tools

Intensity Transformations and pz (z ) is the desired PDF
Spatial Filtering
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3.1- Background

Transformation Functions k k nj
sk  T (rk )  ( L  1) pr (rj )  ( L  1) , k  0,1,2,..., L  1
3,3- Histogram Processing j 0 j 0 n
Filtering
3.5 - Smoothing Spatial Filters k

vk  G ( z k )  ( L  1) p z ( zi ) sk , k  0,1,2,..., L  1
3.6- Sharpening Spatial Filters i 0

Enhancement Tools
z k  G 1[T (rk )], k  0,1,2,..., L  1
Spatial Filtering
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44
3.1- Background

Histogram matching:
Obtain the histogram of the given image, T(r)
3.4- Fundamentals of Spatial Precompute a mapped level Sk for each level rk
Filtering Obtain the transformation function G from the given pz(z)
Precompute Zk for each value of rk
Map rk to its corresponding level Sk; then map level Sk into
3.6- Sharpening Spatial Filters the final level Zk
Enhancement Tools

Spatial Filtering
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3.1- Background


Filtering

Enhancement Tools

Spatial Filtering
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46
3.1- Background


Filtering

Enhancement Tools

Spatial Filtering
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3.1- Background


Filtering

Enhancement Tools

Spatial Filtering
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3.1- Background


Filtering

Enhancement Tools

Spatial Filtering
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49
3.1- Background
Image is dominated by large, dark areas, resulting in a
Transformation Functions histogram characterized by a large concentration of pixels
in pixels in the dark end of the gray scale

Filtering

Enhancement Tools

Spatial Filtering
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50
3.1- Background


Filtering
3.7- Combining Spatial Notice that the output

Enhancement Tools histogram’s low end has
shifted right toward the
3.8- Using Fuzzy Techniques for lighter region of the gray
Intensity Transformations and scale as desired.
Spatial Filtering
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51 Histogram Matching (Specification)
3.1- Background


Filtering

Enhancement Tools

Spatial Filtering
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52
3.1- Background



Enhancement Tools
Spatial Filtering
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Local Histogram Processing
53
3.1- Background

Transformation Functions Histogram specification is a trial-and-error process

There are no rules for specifying histograms, and one must
3.4- Fundamentals of Spatial resort to analysis on a case-by-case basis for any given
Filtering enhancement task.
Histogram processing methods are global processing, in the
3.6- Sharpening Spatial Filters sense that pixels are modified by a transformation function
based on the gray-level content of an entire image.
Enhancement Tools
Sometimes, we may need to enhance details over small areas
3.8- Using Fuzzy Techniques for in an image, which is called a local enhancement.
Spatial Filtering
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54
3.1- Background
Local enhancement:
Histogram using a local neighborhood, for example 7*7
3.2- Some Basic Intensity neighborhood

Filtering

a) Original image (slightly
blurred to reduce noise)
3.6- Sharpening Spatial Filters b) global histogram
equalization (enhance
3.7- Combining Spatial • define a square or rectangular neighborhood and move the noise & slightly
center of this area from pixel to pixel. increase contrast but
Enhancement Tools
• at each location, the histogram of the points in the the construction is not
neighborhood is computed and either histogram equalization changed)
3.8- Using Fuzzy Techniques for or histogram specification transformation function is c) local histogram
obtained. equalization using 7x7
• another approach used to reduce computation is to utilize no neighborhood (reveals
Spatial Filtering overlapping regions, but it usually produces an undesirable the4/28/2019
small squares inside
checkerboard effect.
larger ones of the
original image.
55
3.1- Background


Filtering
Basically, the original image consists of many small squares
inside the larger dark ones.
3.6- Sharpening Spatial Filters However, the small squares were too close in gray level to
the larger ones, and their sizes were too small to influence
global histogram equalization significantly.
Enhancement Tools
So, when we use the local enhancement technique, it reveals
the small areas.
Spatial Filtering Note also the finer noise texture is resulted by the local
processing using relatively small neighborhoods. 4/28/2019
56
3.1- Background

Transformation Functions Histogram using a local 3*3 neighborhood

Filtering

Enhancement Tools

Spatial Filtering
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57
3.1- Background



Enhancement Tools
Spatial Filtering
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58 Using Histogram Statistics
3.1- Background
3.2- Some Basic Intensity Use of histogram statistics for image enhancement:
Transformation Functions r denotes a discrete random variable
3,3- Histogram Processing P(ri) denotes the normalized histogram component
corresponding to the ith value of r
L 1
m   ri p (ri )
Filtering
Mean:
3.5 - Smoothing Spatial Filters i 0
L 1
The nth moment:  n (r )   (ri  m) n p (ri )
i 0
Enhancement Tools
L 1
3.8- Using Fuzzy Techniques for The second moment:  2 (r )   (ri  m) 2 p (ri )
Intensity Transformations and i 0
Spatial Filtering
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3.1- Background

3,3- Histogram Processing Global enhancement: The global mean and variance are
measured over an entire image
Filtering
Local enhancement: The local mean and variance are used
3.5 - Smoothing Spatial Filters as the basis for making changes

Enhancement Tools

Spatial Filtering
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3.1- Background

Transformation Functions rs,t is the gray level at coordinates (s,t) in the neighborhood
P(rs,t) is the neighborhood normalized histogram component
Filtering
3.5 - Smoothing Spatial Filters mean: mS xy  r

( s ,t )S xy
s ,t p(rs ,t )

Enhancement Tools
local variance:  S2 
xy  [r
( s ,t )S xy
s ,t  mS xy ]2 p(rs ,t )

Spatial Filtering
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3.1- Background

Transformation Functions E,K0,K1,K2 are specified parameters
MG is the global mean
DG is the global standard deviation
Filtering
Mapping:

 if mS xy  k0 M G
E  f ( x, y )
3.7- Combining Spatial g ( x, y )   and k1 DG   S xy  k2 DG
Enhancement Tools
 f ( x, y )
 otherwise
Spatial Filtering
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3.1- Background


Filtering

Enhancement Tools

Spatial Filtering
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3.1- Background


Filtering

Enhancement Tools

Spatial Filtering
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3.1- Background


Filtering

Enhancement Tools

Spatial Filtering
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65
3.4 Fundamentals of Spatial Filtering
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66 Fundamentals of Spatial
Filtering
3.1- Background

3,3- Histogram Processing The Mechanics of Spatial Filtering

Filtering Spatial Correlation and Convolution

Vector Representation of Linear Filtering
Generating Spatial Filter Masks
Enhancement Tools

Spatial Filtering
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Filtering
3.1- Background

The Mechanics of Spatial Filtering:

Filtering
R  w(1,1) f ( x  1, y  1) 
w(1,0) f ( x  1, y )   

w(0,0) f ( x, y )   
w(1,0) f ( x  1, y ) 
Enhancement Tools

Spatial Filtering w(1,1) f ( x  1, y  1)
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Filtering
3.1- Background

Image size: M×N
3,3- Histogram Processing Mask size: m×n
3.4- Fundamentals of Spatial a b
g ( x, y )    w( s, t ) f ( x  s, y  t )
Filtering
3.5 - Smoothing Spatial Filters s   at   b

a=(m-1)/2 and b=(n-1)/2
Enhancement Tools
x= 0,1,2,…,M-1 and y= 0,1,2,…,N-1
Spatial Filtering
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Filtering
3.1- Background


Filtering

Enhancement Tools

Spatial Filtering
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Filtering
3.1- Background


Filtering

Enhancement Tools

Spatial Filtering
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Filtering
3.1- Background


Filtering
Spatial Correlation and Convolution

Enhancement Tools

Spatial Filtering
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3.1- Background


Filtering

Enhancement Tools

Spatial Filtering
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73
3.1- Background


Filtering

Enhancement Tools

Spatial Filtering
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Filtering
3.1- Background


Filtering Spatial Correlation and Convolution

Enhancement Tools

Spatial Filtering
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Vector Representation of Linear
75
Filtering
3.1- Background
Vector Representation of Linear Filtering:

R  w1 z1  w2 z 2  ...  w9 z9
3.4- Fundamentals of Spatial 9
  wi zi
Filtering
3.5 - Smoothing Spatial Filters i 1

Enhancement Tools

Spatial Filtering
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3.5 Smoothing Spatial Filters
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77 Smoothing Spatial Filters
3.1- Background

3,3- Histogram Processing Smoothing Linear Filters

Filtering
Order-Static (Nonlinear) Filters

Enhancement Tools

Spatial Filtering
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3.1- Background

Smoothing Linear Filters :
1 9
R   zi
Noise reduction
3,3- Histogram Processing Smoothing of false contours
9 i 1
Reduction of irrelevant detail
Filtering

Enhancement Tools

Spatial Filtering
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3.1- Background

Image size: M×N
3,3- Histogram Processing Mask size: m×n
a b
Filtering
  w(s, t ) f ( x  s, y  t )
g ( x, y )  s   at   b
a b
  w(s, t )
s   at   b
a=(m-1)/2 and b=(n-1)/2
Enhancement Tools
x= 0,1,2,…,M-1 and y= 0,1,2,…,N-1
Spatial Filtering
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Smoothing Spatial Filters
80
3.1- Background

3,3- Histogram Processing Image smoothing

with masks of
Filtering various sizes.

Enhancement Tools

Spatial Filtering
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3.1- Background


Filtering

Enhancement Tools

Spatial Filtering
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3.1- Background

3,3- Histogram Processing Smoothing Linear Filters

Filtering
Order-Static (Nonlinear) Filters

Enhancement Tools

Spatial Filtering
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83 Order-Static (Nonlinear)
Filters
3.1- Background

Order-statistic filters:
Median filter: Replace the value of a pixel by the median
of the gray levels in the neighborhood of that pixel
Filtering
Noise-reduction

Enhancement Tools

Spatial Filtering
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84 Order-Static (Nonlinear)
Filters
3.1- Background


Filtering

Enhancement Tools

Spatial Filtering
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85
3.6 Sharpening Spatial Filters
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86
Sharpening Spatial Filters
3.1- Background

3,3- Histogram Processing Foundation

Filtering
Using the Second Derivative for Image Sharpening - The
3.5 - Smoothing Spatial Filters Laplacian
3.6- Sharpening Spatial Filters Unsharp Masking and Highboost Filtering

Enhancement Tools
Using First-Order Derivative for (Nonlinear) Image
Sharpening - The Gradient
Spatial Filtering
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87 Foundation
3.1- Background
3.2- Some Basic Intensity The first-order derivative:


f
 f ( x  1)  f ( x)
Filtering
x
3.6- Sharpening Spatial Filters The second-order derivative
2 f
 f ( x  1)  f ( x  1)  2 f ( x)
Enhancement Tools
3.8- Using Fuzzy Techniques for x 2

Spatial Filtering
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88 Foundation
3.1- Background


Filtering

Enhancement Tools

Spatial Filtering
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Foundation
89
3.1- Background


Filtering

Enhancement Tools

Spatial Filtering
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90 Sharpening Spatial Filters
3.1- Background


Filtering
Laplacian
3.6- Sharpening Spatial Filters Unsharp Masking and Highboost Filtering

Enhancement Tools
Spatial Filtering
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91 Laplacian
3.1- Background
3.2- Some Basic Intensity Use of second derivatives for enhancement-The Laplacian:
Development of the method
2 f 2 f
3.4- Fundamentals of Spatial  f  2  2
2
Filtering
x y
2 f
 f ( x  1, y )  f ( x  1, y )  2 f ( x, y )
x 2
Enhancement Tools
3.8- Using Fuzzy Techniques for 2 f

Intensity Transformations and  f ( x, y  1)  f ( x, y  1)  2 f ( x, y)
Spatial Filtering y 2
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92 Laplacian
3.1- Background

2 f  [f(x 1,y)  f(x 1,y)  f(x,y 1 )  f(x,y1 )]  4 f(x,y)

Filtering  if the center coefficien t
 f ( x, y )   2 f ( x, y ) of the Laplacian mask

 is negative
g ( x, y )  
if the center coefficien t
3.7- Combining Spatial 
Enhancement Tools  f ( x, y )   2 f ( x, y ) of the Laplacian mask

3.8- Using Fuzzy Techniques for  is positive
Spatial Filtering
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93 Laplacian
3.1- Background


Filtering

Enhancement Tools

Spatial Filtering
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94 Laplacian
3.1- Background


Filtering

Enhancement Tools

Spatial Filtering
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95 Laplacian
3.1- Background

3,3- Histogram Processing Simplifications:`

Filtering
g ( x, y)  f ( x, y)  [ f ( x  1, y)  f ( x  1, y)  f ( x, y  1)  f ( x, y  1)]  4 f ( x, y)
 5 f ( x, y)  [ f ( x  1, y)  f ( x  1, y)  f ( x, y  1)  f ( x, y  1)]

Enhancement Tools

Spatial Filtering
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96 Laplacian
3.1- Background


Filtering

Enhancement Tools

Spatial Filtering
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97 Sharpening Spatial Filters
3.1- Background


Filtering

Unsharp
Unsharp Masking
Masking and
and Highboost
Highboost Filtering
Filtering
Enhancement Tools
Spatial Filtering
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98 Unsharp Masking and
Highboost Filtering
3.1- Background
3.2- Some Basic Intensity Unsharp masking

Transformation Functions Subtract a blurred version of an image from the image
itself
g mask ( x, y )  f ( x, y )  f ( x, y )
Filtering
3.5 - Smoothing Spatial Filters f(x,y) : The image, f̄(x,y): The blurred image
3.6- Sharpening Spatial Filters g ( x, y)  f ( x, y)  k * g mask ( x, y) ,k 1

Enhancement Tools High boost Filtering:
g ( x, y)  f ( x, y)  k * g mask ( x, y) ,k 1
Spatial Filtering
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Highboost Filtering
3.1- Background


Filtering

Enhancement Tools

Spatial Filtering
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10
Highboost Filtering
3.1- Background


Filtering

Enhancement Tools

Spatial Filtering
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Using First-Order Derivative for
101
(Nonlinear) Image Sharpening -
The Gradient
3.1- Background


Filtering

Unsharp Masking and Highboost Filtering
Enhancement Tools
Using
Using First-Order
First-Order Derivative
Derivative for
for (Nonlinear)
(Nonlinear) Image
Image
Sharpening
Sharpening -- The
The Gradient
Gradient
Spatial Filtering
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Using First-Order Derivative for (Nonlinear)
10 Image Sharpening - The Gradient
2
3.1- Background
3.2- Some Basic Intensity Using first-order derivatives for (nonlinear) image
Transformation Functions sharpening, The gradient:
The gradient:
 f 
 g x   x 
3.4- Fundamentals of Spatial f      f 
Filtering g y   
 y 
The magnitude is rotation invariant (isotropic)

Enhancement Tools

M ( x, y )  mag (f )  Gx2  G y2 
1
2
1
 f  2  f  2  2
M ( x, y )  g x  g y
3.8- Using Fuzzy Techniques for       
Intensity Transformations and  x   y  
Spatial Filtering
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Using First-Order Derivative for
103
(Nonlinear) Image Sharpening - The
Gradient
3.1- Background

Transformation Functions Computing using cross differences, Roberts cross-gradient
operators

Filtering g x  ( z9  z5 ) and g y  ( z8  z6 )


M ( x, y)  ( z9  z5 )  ( z8  z6 )
2 2

1
2

Enhancement Tools

Intensity Transformations and M ( x, y)  z9  z5  z8  z6
Spatial Filtering
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Using the Gradient for Image Sharpening
104
3.1- Background

Transformation Functions Sobel operators:
3,3- Histogram Processing A weight value of 2 is to achieve some smoothing by
giving more importance to the center point
Filtering

f  ( z7  2 z8  z9 )  ( z1  2 z 2  z3 )

 ( z3  2 z6  z9 )  ( z1  2 z 4  z7 )
Enhancement Tools

Spatial Filtering
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105
3.1- Background


Filtering

Enhancement Tools

Spatial Filtering
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106
3.1- Background


Filtering

Enhancement Tools

Spatial Filtering
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107
3.7 Combining Spatial

Enhancement Tools
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108 Combining Spatial
Enhancement Tools
3.1- Background

 An example:
3.4- Fundamentals of Spatial  Laplacian to highlight fine detail

Filtering
 Gradient to enhance prominent edges
3.5 - Smoothing Spatial Filters  Smoothed version of the gradient image used to mask the
Laplacian image
 Increase the dynamic range of the gray levels by using a
3.7- Combining Spatial gray-level transformation
Enhancement Tools

Spatial Filtering
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Enhancement Tools
3.1- Background


Filtering

Enhancement Tools

Spatial Filtering
4/28/2019
Enhancement Tools
3.1- Background


Filtering

Enhancement Tools

Spatial Filtering
4/28/2019

part-2Final-Chapter 3 - Intensity Transformations and Spatial Filtering-Updates

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1

3.3 Histogram Processing

3.2- Some Basic Intensity Histogram Modification

3,3- Histogram Processing Histogram Equalization

3.7- Combining Spatial Local Histogram Processing

3.2- Some Basic Intensity Histogram:

3.5 - Smoothing Spatial Filters Normalized histogram:

3.2- Some Basic Intensity

3.6- Sharpening Spatial Filters Bright image

3.2- Some Basic Intensity

3.5 - Smoothing Spatial Filters

3.2- Some Basic Intensity x 10

3,3- Histogram Processing 3

0 50 100 150 200 250

3.6- Sharpening Spatial Filters

3.2- Some Basic Intensity

3,3- Histogram Processing 6000

3.5 - Smoothing Spatial Filters 2000

3.6- Sharpening Spatial Filters 0

0 50 100 150 200 250

3.7- Combining Spatial Over-exposed image

3.8- Using Fuzzy Techniques for

3.2- Some Basic Intensity

3.4- Fundamentals of Spatial

3.2- Some Basic Intensity

3,3- Histogram Processing

3.4- Fundamentals of Spatial

3.5 - Smoothing Spatial Filters

3.6- Sharpening Spatial Filters

3.7- Combining Spatial

3.8- Using Fuzzy Techniques for

 A probability density function is most commonly associated with absolutely

Hence, if FX is the cumulative distribution function of X, then:

and (if fX is continuous at x)

3.1- Background Probability density functions (PDF):

3.2- Some Basic Intensity dr

3.7- Combining Spatial

3.2- Some Basic Intensity

3,3- Histogram Processing

3.4- Fundamentals of Spatial

3.5 - Smoothing Spatial Filters

3.6- Sharpening Spatial Filters

3.7- Combining Spatial

3.8- Using Fuzzy Techniques for

3.2- Some Basic Intensity

3,3- Histogram Processing

3.4- Fundamentals of Spatial

3.5 - Smoothing Spatial Filters

3.6- Sharpening Spatial Filters

3.7- Combining Spatial

3.8- Using Fuzzy Techniques for

3.2- Some Basic Intensity

3.4- Fundamentals of Spatial

3.2- Some Basic Intensity

3,3- Histogram Processing

3.4- Fundamentals of Spatial

3.5 - Smoothing Spatial Filters

3.6- Sharpening Spatial Filters

3.7- Combining Spatial

3.8- Using Fuzzy Techniques for

3.2- Some Basic Intensity Histogram Modification

3,3- Histogram Processing Histogram Equalization