Human Anatomy

Chapter 5

The Skeletal System:

Osseous Tissue and
Skeletal Structure

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 Introduction
• The skeletal system is made of:
– Skeletal bones
– Cartilage
– Ligaments
– Connective tissue to stabilize the skeleton
• Bones are dynamic organs, which consist of
several tissue types

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 Introduction
• Functions of the skeletal system
– Support
• Provides the framework for the attachment of other
organs
– Storage of minerals
• Calcium ions: 98% of the body’s calcium ions are in the
bones
• Phosphate ions
– Blood cell production
• Bone marrow produces erythrocytes, leukocytes, and
platelets

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 Introduction

• Functions of the skeletal system (continued)

– Leverage
• Muscles pull on the bones to produce movement
– Protection
• Ribs protect heart and lungs
• Skull protects the brain
• Vertebrae protect the spinal cord
• Pelvic bones protect the reproductive organs

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 Structure of Bone

• Bones (osseous tissue)

– Supporting connective tissue
• Specialized cells
• Solid matrix
– Outer lining
• Called the periosteum
– Inner lining
• Called the endosteum

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 Structure of Bone

• The Histological Organization of Mature Bone

– The matrix
• Calcium phosphate eventually converts to
hydroxyapatite crystals
• Hydroxyapatite crystals resist compression

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 Structure of Bone

• The Histological Organization of Mature Bone

– Collagen fibers
• Make up 2/3 of the bone matrix
• Contribute to the tensile strength of bones
• Collagen and hydroxyapatite make bone tissue
extremely strong
– Bone cells
• Contribute only 2% of the bone mass

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 Structure of Bone
• The Cells of Mature Bone
– Osteocytes
• Mature bone cells
• Maintain the protein and mineral content of the matrix
– Osteoblasts
• Immature bone cells
• Found on the inner and outer surfaces of bones
• Produce osteoid, which is involved in making the matrix
• Osteoblasts are involved in making new bone. This is a
process called osteogenesis
• Osteoblasts can convert to osteocytes

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 Structure of Bone
• The Cells of Mature Bone (continued)
– Osteoprogenitor cells
• Found on the inner and outer surfaces of bones
• Differentiate to form new osteoblasts
• Heavily involved in the repair of bones after a break
– Osteoclasts
• Secrete acids, which dissolve the bones thereby causing
the release of stored calcium ions and phosphate ions
into the blood
• This process is called osteolysis

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 Figure 5.1a Histological Structure of a Typical Bone

Canaliculi Osteocyte Matrix Endosteum Osteoprogenitor cell

Medullary
cavity

Osteocyte: Mature bone cell Osteoprogenitor cell:

that maintains the bone matrix Stem cell whose divisions produce
osteoblasts

Osteoblast Osteoid Matrix Osteoclast Matrix

Medullary
cavity

Osteoblast: Immature bone Osteoclast: Multinucleate cell

cell that secretes organic that secretes acids and enzymes
components of matrix to dissolve bone matrix
The cells of bone

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 Structure of Bone
• The Osteon
– It is the basic unit of skeletal bones
– Consists of:
• Central canal
• Canaliculi
• Osteocytes
• Lacunae
• Lamellae

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 Figure 5.1c Histological Structure of a Typical Bone

Canaliculi

Concentric
lamellae
Central canal

Osteon
Lacunae

Osteons LM  220

A thin section through

compact bone; in this
procedure the intact matrix
and central canals appear
white, and the lacunae and
canaliculi are shown in black.

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 Figure 5.1d Histological Structure of a Typical Bone

Canaliculi

Concentric
lamellae
Central canal

Osteon
Lacunae

Osteon LM  343

A single osteon at higher

magnification
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 Figure 5.1b Histological Structure of a Typical Bone
Osteon

Lacunae

Central
canals

Lamellae

Osteons SEM  182

A scanning electron
micrograph of several osteons
in compact bone
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 Structure of Bone

• Two types of osseous tissue

– Compact bone (dense bone)
• Compact bones are dense and solid
• Forms the walls of bone outlining the medullary cavity
• Medullary cavity consists of bone marrow
– Spongy bone (trabecular bone)
• Open network of plates

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 Figure 5.2a-c The Internal Organization in Representative Bones
Concentric
Spongy bone lamellae

Blood vessels
Collagen fiber
Compact bone orientation
Central
Medullary cavity canal

Endosteum Endosteum

The organization of collagen

fibers within concentric lamellae

Periosteum

Compact Spongy Medullary

bone bone cavity
Capillary
Small vein
Circumferential
Gross anatomy Concentric lamellae
of the humerus lamellae Osteons
Periosteum
Interstitial
lamellae

Trabeculae of ArteryVein
spongy bone

Perforating Central
canal canal

Diagrammatic view of the histological

organization of compact and spongy bone

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 Figure 5.2d The Internal Organization in Representative Bones

Trabeculae of
spongy bone

Endosteum
Lamellae
Canaliculi
opening
on surface

Location and structure of spongy bone. The photo

shows a sectional view of the proximal end of the femur.
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 Structure of Bone

• Structural Differences
– Compact bone
• Consists of osteons
• Makes up the dense, solid portion of bone
– Spongy bone
• Trabeculae are arranged in parallel struts
• Trabeculae form branching plates
• Trabeculae form an open network
• Creates the lightweight nature of bones

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 Structure of Bone

• Functional Differences
– Compact bone
• Conducts stress from one area of the body to another
area of the body
• Generates tremendous strength from end to end
• Weak strength when stress is applied to the side
– Spongy bone
• Trabeculae create strength to deal with stress from the
side

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 Figure 5.3a Anatomy of a Representative Bone

Spongy bone
Epiphysis

Articular Metaphysis
surface of
head of femur

Compact bone

Diaphysis
(shaft)

Medullary
cavity

Metaphysis

Epiphysis

Posterior view Sectional view

The femur, or thigh bone, in superficial and sectional views. The femur has a
diaphysis (shaft) with walls of compact bone and epiphyses (ends) filled with
spongy bone. A metaphysis separates the diaphysis and epiphysis at each
end of the shaft. The body weight is transferred to the femur at the hip joint.
Because the hip joint is off center relative to the axis of the shaft, the body
weight is distributed along the bone so that the medial portion of the shaft is
compressed and the lateral portion is stretched.
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 Figure 5.3b Anatomy of a Representative Bone

An intact femur chemically cleared

to show the orientation of the
trabeculae in the epiphysis

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 Figure 5.3c Anatomy of a Representative Bone

Articular surface
of head of femur

Trabeculae
of spongy
bone
Cortex

Medullary cavity

Compact bone

A photograph showing the

epiphysis after sectioning

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 Structure of Bone

• Organization of Compact and Spongy Bone

– Epiphysis
• Each end of the long bones
– Diaphysis
• Shaft of the long bones
– Metaphysis
• Narrow growth zone between the epiphysis and the
diaphysis

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 Figure 5.3a Anatomy of a Representative Bone

Spongy bone
Epiphysis

Articular Metaphysis
surface of
head of femur

Compact bone

Diaphysis
(shaft)

Medullary
cavity

Metaphysis

Epiphysis

Posterior view Sectional view

The femur, or thigh bone, in superficial and sectional views. The femur has a
diaphysis (shaft) with walls of compact bone and epiphyses (ends) filled with
spongy bone. A metaphysis separates the diaphysis and epiphysis at each
end of the shaft. The body weight is transferred to the femur at the hip joint.
Because the hip joint is off center relative to the axis of the shaft, the body
weight is distributed along the bone so that the medial portion of the shaft is
compressed and the lateral portion is stretched.
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 Structure of Bone

• The Periosteum and Endosteum

– Periosteum
• Outer surface of the bone
• Isolates and protects the bone from surrounding tissue
• Provides a route and a place for attachment for
circulatory and nervous supply
• Actively participates in bone growth and repair
• Attaches the bone to the connective tissue network of
the deep fascia

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 Structure of Bone
• The Periosteum and Endosteum
– Periosteum and Tendons
• Tendons are cemented into the lamellae by osteoblasts
• Therefore, tendons are actually a part of the bone

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 Figure 5.4c Anatomy and Histology of the Periosteum and Endosteum

Zone of
tendonbone
attachment

Tendon

Periosteum

Medullary cavity

Endosteum

Spongy bone
of epiphysis

Epiphyseal
cartilage

LM  100

A tendonbone junction

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 Structure of Bone

• The Periosteum and Endosteum

– Endosteum
• Inner surface of bone
• Lines the medullary cavity
• Consists of osteoprogenitor cells
• Actively involved in repair and growth

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 Figure 5.4ab Anatomy and Histology of the Periosteum and Endosteum

Circumferential
Joint capsule lamellae

Cellular layer
Cellular layer of periosteum
of periosteum Fibrous layer
of periosteum
Fibrous layer Canaliculi
of periosteum
Lacuna
Endosteum Compact bone
Osteocyte
Perforating
fibers
The periosteum contains outer
Bone (fibrous) and inner (cellular) layers.
matrix Collagen fibers of the periosteum are
continuous with those of the bone,
Giant adjacent joint capsules, and attached
multinucleate tendons and ligaments.
osteoclast
Endosteum
Osteoprogenitor
cell

Osteocyte
Osteoid

Osteoblasts

The endosteum is an incomplete

cellular layer containing osteoblasts,
osteoprogenitor cells, and osteoclasts.

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 Bone Development and Growth
• Before six weeks of development, the skeleton is
cartilage
– Cartilage cells will be replaced by bone cells
– This is called ossification
• Osteogenesis
– Bone formation
• Calcification
– The deposition of calcium ions into the bone tissue

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 Bone Development and Growth

• There are two types of ossification

– Intramembranous ossification
• Involved in the development of clavicle, mandible,
skull, and face
– Endochondral ossification
• Involved in the development of limbs, vertebrae, and
hips

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 Bone Development and Growth

• Intramembranous ossification
– Mesenchymal cells differentiate to form
osteoblasts
– Osteoblasts begin secreting a matrix
– Osteoblasts become trapped in the matrix
– Osteoblasts differentiate and form osteocytes
– More osteoblasts are produced, thus move
outward
– Eventually, compact bone is formed

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 Figure 5.5 Histology of Intramembranous Ossification

Mesenchymal cells aggregate, differentiate into osteoblasts, As the spicules interconnect, they Over time, the bone
and begin the ossification process. The bone expands as a trap blood vessels within the bone. assumes the structure of
series of spicules that spread into surrounding tissues. spongy bone. Areas of
spongy bone may later be
Osteocyte in lacuna Bone matrix removed, creating
medullary cavities.
Osteoblast
Through remodeling,
Osteoid spongy bone formed in this
way can be converted to
Embryonic connective tissue compact bone.
Blood Osteocytes Blood Osteoblast
Mesenchymal cell vessel in lacunae vessels layer

Blood vessel

Blood vessel Osteoblasts Spicules LM  32 LM  32

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 Bone Development and Growth
• Endochondral ossification
– The developing bone begins as cartilage cells
– Cartilage matrix grows inward
• Interstitial growth
– Cartilage matrix grows outward
• Appositional growth
– Blood vessels grow around the cartilage

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 Bone Development and Growth

• Endochondral ossification (continued)

– Perichondrial cells convert to osteoblasts
– Osteoblasts develop a superficial layer of bone
around the cartilage
– Blood vessels penetrate the cartilage
– Osteoblasts begin to develop spongy bone in the
diaphysis
– This becomes the primary center of ossification

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 Figure 5.7a Anatomical and Histological Organization of Endochondral Ossification (Part 1 of 2)

As the cartilage enlarges, Blood vessels grow

chondrocytes near the
center of the shaft
increase greatly in size.
The matrix is reduced to a
series of small struts that
soon begin to calcify. The
enlarged chondrocytes
then die and disintegrate,
leaving cavities within the
cartilage.
around the edges of the
cartilage, and the cells of
the perichondrium
convert to osteoblasts.
The shaft of the cartilage
then becomes ensheathed
in a superficial layer of
bone.

Enlarging
chondrocytes within
calcifying matrix
Epiphysis

Diaphysis

Bone
formation

Hyaline cartilage

Steps in the formation of a long bone from a hyaline cartilage model

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 Figure 5.7a Anatomical and Histological Organization of Endochondral Ossification (Part 2 of 2)

Blood vessels penetrate the Remodeling occurs as growth

cartilage and invade the central
region. Fibroblasts migrating
with the blood vessels
differentiate into osteoblasts
and begin producing spongy
bone at a primary center of
ossification. Bone formation
then spreads along the shaft
toward both ends.
continues, creating a medullary
cavity. The bone of the shaft
becomes thicker, and the cartilage
near each epiphysis is replaced by
shafts of bone. Further growth
involves increases in length (Steps 5
and 6) and diameter (see Figure 5.9).

Medullary
cavity Medullary
Blood cavity
vessel Primary
ossification
center

Superficial
bone
See
Spongy Figure 5.9
bone

Metaphysis

Steps in the formation of a long bone from a hyaline cartilage model

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 Bone Development and Growth

• Endochondral ossification (continued)

– The cartilage near the epiphysis converts to bone
– Blood vessels penetrate the epiphysis
– Osteoblasts begin to develop spongy bone in the
epiphysis
– Epiphysis becomes the secondary center of
ossification

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 Figure 5.7b Anatomical and Histological Organization of Endochondral Ossification (Part 1 of 2)

Capillaries and osteoblasts Soon the epiphyses are filled with

migrate into the epiphyses,
creating secondary
ossification centers.
Hyaline cartilage
spongy bone. An articular cartilage
remains exposed to the joint cavity;
over time it will be reduced to a thin
superficial layer. At each
metaphysis, an epiphyseal cartilage
separates the epiphysis from the
diaphysis.

Articular cartilage

Epiphysis
Spongy
bone

Metaphysis

Epiphyseal
Periosteum cartilage
Compact
bone Diaphysis

Secondary
ossification
center

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 Bone Development and Growth
• Epiphyseal plate
– Area of cartilage in the metaphysis
– Also called the epiphyseal cartilage
– Cartilage near the diaphysis is converted to bone
– The width of this zone gets narrower as we age

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 Figure 5.7b Anatomical and Histological Organization of Endochondral Ossification (Part 2 of 2)
Epiphyseal Cartilage cells
cartilage matrix undergoing division

Zone of
proliferation

Zone of
hypertrophy

Medullary Osteoblasts Osteoid

cavity
Epiphyseal cartilage LM  250

Light micrograph showing the

zones of cartilage and the
advancing osteoblasts at an
epiphyseal cartilage
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 Figure 5.7 Anatomical and Histological Organization of Endochondral Ossification

As the cartilage enlarges,
chondrocytes near the
center of the shaft
increase greatly in size.
The matrix is reduced to a
series of small struts that
soon begin to calcify. The
enlarged chondrocytes
then die and disintegrate,
leaving cavities within the
cartilage.
Enlarging
chondrocytes within
calcifying matrix
Blood vessels grow
around the edges of the
cartilage, and the cells of
the perichondrium convert
to osteoblasts. The shaft
of the cartilage then
becomes ensheathed in a
superficial layer of bone.
Epiphysis
Blood
vessel
Diaphysis
Blood vessels penetrate the Remodeling occurs as growth Capillaries and osteoblasts Soon the epiphyses are filled with
cartilage and invade the central continues, creating a medullary migrate into the epiphyses, spongy bone. An articular cartilage
region. Fibroblasts migrating cavity. The bone of the shaft creating secondary remains exposed to the joint cavity;
with the blood vessels becomes thicker, and the cartilage ossification centers. over time it will be reduced to a thin
differentiate into osteoblasts near each epiphysis is replaced by superficial layer. At each metaphysis,
and begin producing spongy shafts of bone. Further growth Hyaline cartilage an epiphyseal cartilage separates the
bone at a primary center of involves increases in length (Steps 5 epiphysis from the diaphysis. Cartilage cells
Epiphyseal
ossification. Bone formation and 6) and diameter (see Figure 5.9). undergoing division
Articular cartilage cartilage matrix
then spreads along the shaft
toward both ends.
Epiphysis Spongy
bone Zone of
proliferation
Metaphysis
Zone of
hypertrophy
Epiphyseal
cartilage
Medullary Periosteum
cavity Medullary
Compact Diaphysis
Primary cavity
bone
ossification
center

Superficial
bone
See
Spongy Figure 5.9
bone Medullary Osteoblasts Osteoid
Bone Metaphysis cavity
formation
Epiphyseal cartilage LM  250

Hyaline cartilage
Secondary
ossification Light micrograph showing the
center zones of cartilage and the
advancing osteoblasts at an
epiphyseal cartilage

Steps in the formation of a long bone from a hyaline cartilage model

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 Figure 5.8 Epiphyseal Cartilages and Lines

X-ray of the hand of a young child. The arrows X-ray of the hand of an adult. The arrows indicate the
indicate the locations of the epiphyseal cartilages. locations of epiphyseal lines.

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 Figure 5.6 Fetal Intramembranous and Endochondral Ossification

Temporal
bone Parietal bone

Mandible

Intramembranous Clavicle
Frontal bone
ossification
produces the Scapula
roofing bones of
the skull Humerus Metacarpal bones

Phalanges
Ribs
Radius
Endochondral Vertebrae Ulna
ossification
replaces cartilages Cartilage
Hip bone
of embryonic skull (ilium)
Primary ossification Femur
Fibula
centers of the
Tibia
diaphyses (bones
of the lower limb) Phalanx
Future Metatarsal bones
hip bone
At 10 weeks the fetal skull clearly shows At 16 weeks the fetal skull shows the irregular
both membrane and cartilaginous bone, margins of the future skull bones. Most
but the boundaries that indicate the limits elements of the appendicular skeleton form
of future skull bones have yet to be through endochondral ossification. Note the
established. appearance of the wrist and ankle bones at 16
weeks versus at 10 weeks.

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 Bone Development and Growth
• Enlarging the diameter of bone
– Called appositional growth
– Blood vessels that run parallel to the bone
becomes surrounded by bone cells
– “Tunnels” begin to form
– Each “tunnel” has a blood vessel in it

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 Bone Development and Growth
• Enlarging the diameter of bone
– Osteoblasts begin to produce matrix, thus creating
concentric rings
– As osteoblasts are laying down more bone
material, osteoclasts are dissolving the inner
bone, thus creating the marrow cavity

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 Figure 5.9a Appositional Bone Growth (Part 1 of 2)

Bone formation at the surface The ridges enlarge and create The ridges meet and fuse, trapping
of the bone produces ridges a deep pocket. the vessel inside the bone.
that parallel a blood vessel.

Ridge Periosteum Perforating

canal

Artery

Three-dimensional diagrams illustrate the mechanism

responsible for increasing the diameter of a growing bone.

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 Figure 5.9a Appositional Bone Growth (Part 2 of 2)

Bone deposition proceeds inward toward Additional circumferential lamellae are Osteon is complete with new central
the vessel, beginning the creation of a deposited and the bone continues to canal around blood vessel. Second blood
typical osteon. increase in diameter. vessel becomes enclosed.
Periosteum
Circumferential Central canal
lamellae of new
osteon

Three-dimensional diagrams illustrate the mechanism

responsible for increasing the diameter of a growing bone.

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 Figure 5.9b Appositional Bone Growth

Bone resorbed
by osteoclasts

Bone deposited
Infant by osteoblasts
Child
Young adult Adult
A bone grows in diameter as new bone is added to the outer surface. At the same
time, osteoclasts resorb bone on the inside, enlarging the medullary cavity.

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 Bone Development and Growth
• There are four major sets of blood vessels
associated with the long bones
– Nutrient vessels
• Enter the diaphysis and branch toward the epiphysis
• Re-enter the compact bone, leading to the central
canals of the osteons
– Metaphyseal vessels
• Supply nutrients to the diaphyseal edge of the
epiphysis

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 Bone Development and Growth

• Four major sets of blood vessels (continued)

– Epiphyseal vessels
• Supply nutrients to the medullary cavities of the
epiphysis
– Periosteal vessels
• Supply nutrients to the superficial osteons

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 Figure 5.10 Circulatory Supply to a Mature Bone
Articular
cartilage
Epiphyseal
artery and vein
Branches of
nutrient artery
and vein Metaphyseal
Periosteum artery and
vein

Periosteum

Compact
bone
Periosteal Connections to
arteries and superficial osteons Medullary cavity
veins
Nutrient artery
and vein
Nutrient foramen

Metaphyseal Metaphysis
artery and vein

Epiphyseal
line

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 Bone Development and Growth
• Factors Regulating Bone Growth
– Nutrition
– Calcium ions
– Phosphate ions
– Magnesium ions
– Citrate
– Carbonate ions
– Sodium ions
– Vitamins A, C, D (calcitriol)

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 Bone Development and Growth
• Factors Regulating Bone Growth (continued)
– Hormones: Parathyroid gland
• Releases parathyroid hormone
• Stimulates osteoclasts
• Stimulates osteoblasts
• Increases calcium ion absorption from the small
intestine to the blood

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 Bone Development and Growth

• Factors Regulating Bone Growth (continued)

– Hormones: Thyroid gland
Releases calcitonin
• Inhibits osteoclasts
• Removes calcium ions from blood and adds it to bone

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 Bone Development and Growth

• Factors Regulating Bone Growth (continued)

– Hormones: Thyroid gland
• Releases thyroxine (T4)
• Maintains normal activity of the epiphyseal cartilage

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 Bone Development and Growth

• Factors Regulating Bone Growth (continued)

– Hormones: Pituitary gland
• Releases growth hormone (somatotropin)
• Maintains normal activity of the epiphyseal cartilage

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 Bone Maintenance, Remodeling, and Repair
• Aging and the Skeletal System
– When we’re young, osteoblast activity balances
with osteoclast activity
– When we get older, osteoblast activity slows faster
than osteoclast activity
– When osteoclast activity is faster than osteoblast
activity, bones become porous
– Estrogen keeps osteoclast activity under control

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 Bone Maintenance, Remodeling, and Repair

• Aging and the Skeletal System

– As women age, estrogen levels drop
– Osteoclast control is lost
• Osteoclasts are overactive
– Bones become porous
• This is osteoporosis

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 Bone Maintenance, Remodeling, and Repair

• Injury and Repair

– When a bone is broken, bleeding occurs
– A network of spongy bone forms
– Osteoblasts are overly activated, thus resulting in
enlarged callused area
– This area is now stronger and thicker than normal
bone

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 Clinical Note 5.3 Fractures and Their Repair (Part 3 of 4)

Repair
of a
fracture
Fracture
hematoma

Dead Bone Spongy bone of Periosteum

bone fragments external callus

Immediately after the fracture, An internal callus forms as

extensive bleeding occurs. a network of spongy bone
Over a period of several units the inner edges, and
hours, a large blood clot, or an external callus of
fracture hematoma, develops. cartilage and bone
stabilizes the outer edges.

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 Clinical Note 5.3 Fractures and Their Repair (Part 4 of 4)

External
callus

Internal External
callus callus

The cartilage of the external A swelling initially marks

callus has been replaced by bone, the location of the fracture.
and struts of spongy bone now Over time, this region will
unite the broken ends. Fragments be remodeled, and little
of dead bone and the areas of evidence of the fracture
bone closest to the break have will remain.
been removed and replaced.

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 Anatomy of Skeletal Elements

• There are seven broad categories of bones

according to their shapes
– Sutural bones
– Irregular bones
– Short bones
– Pneumatized bones
– Flat bones
– Long bones
– Sesamoid bones

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 Figure 5.11 Shapes of Bones

Sutural Bones Pneumatized Bones Flat Bones

Sutures Parietal bone External table

Sutural
bone

Internal Diploë
table (spongy bone)
Ethmoid Air cells

Irregular Bones Long Bones

Vertebra
Humerus

Short Bones Sesamoid Bones

Carpal Patella
bones

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 Anatomy of Skeletal Elements

• Bone markings include:

– Projections
– Depressions
– Fissures
– Foramina
– Canals (meatuses)

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 Figure 5.12a Examples of Bone Markings (Surface Features)
Trochanter

Head

Neck

Facet

Tubercle

Condyle

Femur
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 Figure 5.12b Examples of Bone Markings (Surface Features)

Fissure

Process

Ramus Foramen

Skull, anterior view

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 Figure 5.12c Examples of Bone Markings (Surface Features)

Canal

Sinuses

Meatus

Skull, sagittal section

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 Figure 5.12d Examples of Bone Markings (Surface Features)

Tubercle
Head
Sulcus
Neck

Tuberosity

Fossa

Trochlea

Condyle
Humerus

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 Figure 5.12e Examples of Bone Markings (Surface Features)

Crest

Spine Fossa

Line

Foramen
Ramus

Pelvis

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 Table 5.1 Common Bone Marking Terminology

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