First Year B.S.

Minor Course in Geology

Course name: Geology I
Course no. GLT 101

M. Bodruddoza Mia, PhD

Associate Professor
Department of Geology
University of Dhaka
Email: bodruddoza@du.ac.bd
Cell Phone: 01818240937
 MINERALOGY
Course Outline-my Part

o Definition
o History
o Importance
o Common rock forming and ore minerals
o Crystal Structure
o Chemistry
o Physical Properties
o Miscellaneous properties
o Mineral Classification
 Reference Books

• Berry, M.S. and Mason, B.: Elements of

Mineralogy
• Read, M.H.: Rutley’s Elements of Mineralogy
• Berry, AL G, Brian Mason and R V Dietrich:
Mineralogy: Concepts, Descriptions,
Determinations
An assortment of minerals
 Galena

Copper
Gold

Talc

Hematite
Pre-Historic Weapons
Pre-Historic Tools
Pre-Historic Cave paintings
Pre-Historic Ornaments
 History
• Aristotle
• Pliny the Elder
• Georgius Agricola
• Nicholas Steno
• Robert Boyle – First used the term Mineralogy in
1690 in print
• John Dalton’s Atomic Theory – 1805
• William Nicol – developed the polarizer microscope
in 1809, optical properties
• W. H. and W. L. Bragg published results of X-ray
studies of some minerals around 1915
 Definitions
Mineralogy is an earth science that
involves the chemistry, crystal structure,
and physical (including optical) properties
of minerals.

Mineralogy also include the processes of

mineral creation and destruction.
 Definitions of Mineral
• Historic – Any material that is neither animal nor
Vegetable
• Legal – Something valuable that can be
extracted from the Earth is subject to Depletion
• Scientific – A naturally occurring solid, generally
formed by inorganic processes, with an ordered
internal arrangement of atoms, and a chemical
composition and physical properties that either
are fixed or that vary within definite range
 Definitions-cntd
• Naturally Occurring – can’t be synthetic
• Solid – Ice is mineral, water is not
• Inorganic – some confusion here, Solid
hydrocarbons are called minerals, Aragonite
from shells also
• Minerals are crystalline solids, Opals become
crystal in time and in some minerals the
crystalline structure is destroyed
• Slight variations can occur in chemistry and
therefore the physical properties
 Definition of Mineraloid

There are some substances which have the

appearance of a mineral but lack any definite
internal structure, are sometimes called
"mineraloids".
Example : Opal
 Characteristics of Mineral
Lutgens and Tarbuck give the following list of essential
characteristics of a "mineral":
1.It must occur naturally;
2.It must be inorganic;
3.It must be a solid;
4.It must possess an orderly internal structure, that is,
its atoms must be arranged in a definite pattern; and
5.It must have a definite chemical composition that
may vary within specified limits.
 Characteristics of Mineral

Note :
Some minerals such as Graphite,
Diamond and Calcite may be
organic in origin.
As of 2004 there are over 4,000 species
of minerals recognized by the
International Mineralogical Association
(IMA). Of these, perhaps 150 can be
called ‘common’, another 50 are
‘occasional’, and the rest are ‘rare’ to
‘extremely rare’.
 Importance of Minerals
• Economical – Used in industry, Ore minerals
(metallic elements), Ore deposits, industrial
minerals (non-metallic)
• Scientific – How they were formed, where
they can be found, how they can be
synthesized, tells us about the Earth’s history
• Aesthetic – Shiny and colorful gems
Distribution Elements in the Crust

Element Chemical symbol Approximate

% by weight
Oxygen O 46.6
Silicon Si 27.7
Aluminum Al 8.1
Iron Fe 5.0
Calcium Ca 3.6
Sodium Na 2.8
Potassium K 2.6
Magnesium Mg 2.1
All others - 1.5
 Distribution of Minerals in the Crust
 Oxygen and Silicon are the two most common
ELEMENTS in the Earth's crust.

 These two elements bond to create silicates, which are

the most abundant GROUP OF MINERALS in the Earth's
crust accounting for 75% of the composition in the
earth's crust.

 Non-silicates constitute less than 10% of the Earth's

crust.

 But the most common single mineral in the crust is

Quartz
The most common minerals
• Feldspars – 51%
– Plagioclasse Feldspars – 39%
– Alkali Feldspars – 12%
• Quartz – 12%
• Pyroxenes – 11%
• Amphiboles – 5%
• Micas – 5%
• Other Clay Minerals – 5%
• Other Silicates – 3%
• Non-Silicates – 8%
 Ore and Ore Deposits
• An Ore is a type of rock that contains
minerals with valuable/important metallic
elements.
• Main confusion is whether it is economic or
not.
• Generally if the quantity of the ore is enough
to guarantee a profit after extraction it is
called an Ore Deposit.
• The term Ore Minerals does not imply
economic viability.
• Gangue Minerals are associated with ores.
Gangue (pronounced ‘gang’) is the term
used to collectively describe the
valueless minerals in an ore deposit.

In mining, gangue is the commercially

worthless material that surrounds, or is
closely mixed with a wanted mineral in
an ore deposit.

Fig. Crystals of cassiterite, a

commercially valuable
mineral, in a matrix of quartz,
the gangue
 Crystals
• Crystal is a solid body bounded by natural
planar surfaces called crystal faces, that are
the external expressions of a regular internal
arrangements of the constituent atoms/ions.

• Crystalline materials have regular internal

arrangements of atoms/ions that may or may
not be bounded by crystal faces. This is more
common in Minerals.
Crystals
 Crystals
• Natural crystals grows wherever
– Their constituent elements (atoms/ions) are free to come
together in the correct proportions
– Existing conditions allows growth at a reasonably slow
and steady rate
– There is free space where they can grow without physical
constraint
• Therefore we get good crystals along the walls of
fractures, cavities and vesicles
• Mostly they form from hot aqueous magmas in
hydrothermal veins, from gaseous fluids or in
cavities as late stage crystallization
 Crystals

• Crystal Lattice is 3-dimensional structure in which

positions are occupied by the atoms/ions (Motifs).
• The unit cell is the fundamental building block that
forms the crystal structure by regular repetition of
itself in space
• Auguste Bravais (1817-1863) showed that only 14
types of regular pattern or space lattices can result
from arranging identical points in space such that
the any point is repeated at regular interval
Crystal Lattices
 Crystals

• Euhedral – The grain is bounded in all sides

by its crystal faces, a perfect crystal
• Anhedral – The grain exhibits none of its own
possible crystal faces
• Subhedral – The grain has some but not all of
its possible crystal faces. In between
Euhedral and Anhedral
 Bonding in Atoms/Crystals
• Metallic Bond – The strongest of the
bonds where the element loses its outer
electron easily. Native metals have this
type of bonding

• Covalent Bond – most stable bonds

where the outer electron is shared
between similar atoms as in the inert
gases. Non reactive.
 Bonding in Atoms/Crystals-cntd

• Ionic Bond – Stability is reached by

losing or gaining electron from another
element (Na and Cl)

• Van Der Waals Bond – A weak bonding

force that exists within atoms due to
electrical imbalance
 Ionic

Atomic Bonding

Covalent

Metallic
 Crystal Systems
• Based on the direction of the Axes (a, b, c)
seven (7) Systems and 32 classes:

– Triclinic
– Monoclinic
– Orthorhombic
– Tetragonal
– Rhombohedral
– Hexagonal
– Cubic
 Crystal Systems in Figure

Cubic Hexagonal Rhombohedral Tetragonal

Orthorhombic Monoclinic Triclinic

 I. Crystal System-Cubic

Axes, three equal, a, a, a at right angles (e.g.

galena, pyrite etc
II. Crystal System-Rhombohedral

Axes, three equal, a, a, a not at right angles (e.g.

calcite).
III. Crystal System-Tetragonal

Axes, a, a, c, two equal horizontal, one vertical, at right

angles (example: zircon).
IV. Crystal Systems-Hexagonal

Axes, a, a, a, c, three equal horizontal, making angles of

120 with each other, a vertical axis at right angles to the
plane containing the horizontal axes (e.g. quartz, beryl).
V. Crystal System-Orthorhombic

Axes, a, b, c three unequal, all at right angles (example:

baryte).
 VI. Crystal System-Monoclinic

Axes, a, b, c, three unequal axes, one vertical, one at

right angles to the vertical axis, the third making an
oblique angle with the plane containing the other two
(e.g. gypsum).
 VII. Crystal System-Triclinic

Axes, a, b, c three unequal axes, none at right angles

(example: Axinite).
 Crystal Structure Directly
Influences:

• Specific Gravity/Density
• Hardness
• Fracture/Cleavage
• Optical Properties
• Thermal and Electromagnetic properties
 Physical Properties of Minerals
A specific mineral is defined by describing its physical
and chemical properties. A mineral may be identified
by certain characteristic properties such as

Form/habit Hardness
Colour Cleavage
Diaphaneity Fracture
Lustre Specific gravity
Streak Miscellaneous/special property
 Form/Habit

This is the appearance of single crystal or

aggregation.

As the minerals are crystalline, external

geometric planes are the indication of an
orderly internal arrangement of the constituent
atoms and molecules within the mineral grain.
 Form/Habit
Crystal faces (planar growth surfaces) develop
only when a mineral grows in an open space or
under favorable environment.
Therefore most specimens of minerals do not
show any crystal form.
Depending on the manner in which a mineral
grows following descriptive terms may be used:
A. Crystal form
B. Crystalline form
 A. Crystal Form
Crystal form - Well developed crystals bounded by
geometric faces. Some common crystal forms are:
Cubic - crystals with six square faces in which all the
three dimensions are equal and are at right angle, e.g.
Pyrite.
Rhomhedral - crystals having six rhombic faces with all
the three dimensions are equal and are not at right
angle, e.g. Calcite.
Octahedral - crystals bounded by eight equilateral
triangular faces, e.g. Fluorite.
 Crystal Form
Hexagonal: crystals bounded by six rectangular
faces having parallel edges, e.g. Beryl.
Hexagonal dipyramid: crystals bounded by six
rectangular faces having parallel edge terminated
by pyramids, e.g. Quartz.
Dodecahedral: crystals bounded by twelve
rhombohedral/trapezohedral faces, e.g. Garnet,
Sphalerite.
 B. Crystalline Form
Crystalline form - Lacks well developed crystal faces, but a
confused aggregate of imperfectly formed crystals. Common
crystalline forms are:
Acicular : fine needle like crystals as in Actinolite.
Banded : narrow bands of different colours- certain Agate,
Malachite, etc.
Bladed : flat and elongated like a knife blade as in kyanite
Botryoidal : when globular forms are in groups, resembling a
bunch of grapes e.g. Chalcedony.
Columnar/prismatic : resembling slender columns having one
dimension markedly longer than other two as in Hornblende.
Cubic Form (Pyrite)
Rhombohedral Form (Calcite)
 Crystalline Form
Concretionary and Nodular : terms applied to minerals which are
found in detached masses, the forms being spherical ellipsoidal,
knob-like as in the Flint nodules.
Dendritic and Arborescent : tree-like or moss-like forms, e.g.
Pyrolusite, Copper.
Fibrous : consisting of fine thread like strands, as exhibited by the
variety of Gypsum called Satin spar and by Asbestos.
Foliated or Foliaceous : leaf like as in book, leaves or laminae are
thin and separable as in Micas.
Granular : aggregate of large or small grains of no crystal faces,
e.g. Chromite.
 Crystalline Form
Lamellar : consisting of separable thin plates.
Oolitic : concentric globular bodies resembling fish roe, e.g. some
Hematite.
Pisolitic : concentric globular bodies each about the size of pea,
e.g. Bauxite, Limonite, etc.
Radiating : aggregates of elongated/needle like crystals that
radiate from a center point, e.g. Pyrophyllite.
Reniform : rounded kidney shaped, e.g. Goethite
 Crystalline Form
Reticulated : network of criss- crossed slender crystal growths e.g.
Rutile.
Stalactitic : pendent cylinder or cones, e.g. some Calcite,
Aragonite.
Stellate : fibres radiating from a centre to produce star-like forms
as in Wavellite.
Tabular : a form having two flat and nearly parallel surfaces with
two dimensions much longer than the third one like a table top
e.g. Microcline.
Massive : compact mass having no definite identifiable form.
 Color
Color in Minerals can be of two types, both influenced
by Chemical Composition

– Idiochromatic – Constant color. The color is inherent for

these minerals.
– Allochromatic (Exotic) – Varying color. The color
absorbing ions/groups of ions do or do not occur in these
minerals
– Pseudochromatic – Color caused in minerals by physical
effects (inclusions/defects). These are not the true color
of that mineral
 Color varies based on
Ions/ionic groups

Muscovite

Biotite
Color varies
Based on
Inclusions
 Streak
Streak is the color of the fine powder of a
mineral. It is often more distinctive for the
mineral than the color of the whole mineral.
Streak reflects the inherent color as opposed
to the exotic color.
 Hardness
• Generally described as resistance to
scratching. It gives an indication of the
internal cohesiveness of the mineral.
• Relative hardness is a good diagnostic
property
• Hardness is
– Greater in minerals with smaller atoms
– Greater in minerals containing higher valency
Cations
– Varies directly with packing density
– Varies indirectly with Cation-Anion separation
 Hardness Scale

• Mohs scale (1-10) of relative Hardness

was developed by Friedrich Mohs in 1824.

• There are ten minerals occupying ten

position in this scale These are: Talc,
Gypsum, Calcite, Fluorite, Apatite,
Feldspar, Quartz, Topaz, Corundum and
Diamond. The intervals in this scale is not
uniform.
 Hardness Tool
Hardness somewhat varies when measured
along different crystal direction. A mineral is
generally softer along the cleavage surface

Common Hardness tools are :

• Fingernail - 2.5
• Broken glass/knife blades - 5.5
• Copper penny - 3
• Metal/Steel file - 6.5
 Hardness Scale
Name of the mineral Hardness
Talc 1
Gypsum 2
Calcite 3
Fluorite 4
Apatite 5
Feldspar 6
Quartz 7
Topaz 8
Corundum 9
Diamond 10
 Specific Gravity and Density
• Ratio of Density of the Mineral to the density of
Water
• Depends on Chemical Composition (heavier atoms)
and the Crystal Structure (stronger bonding/closer
packing)
• Some variation may occur based on Temperature and
Pressure conditions but otherwise this is a constant
number which can be diagnostic for minerals with
fixed composition like Quartz.
 Optical Properties

• Some are Macroscopic and some

are studied under a Microscope

• Reflection, Refraction, Diaphaneity,

Luster, Color, Streak, Luminescence
etc are related to the Macroscopic
optical properties
 Optical Properties - Luster

• Appearance of a mineral in reflected

light or how much light is reflected
from the mineral surface.
• Surface condition Rough or Smooth
and the Refractive Index influences
Luster
 Luster
Three types of luster:
Metallic – Very shiny, like freshly broken metal,
usually opaque and dark colored, e.g. galena,
pyrite, gold, silver etc.
Sub-Metallic – Between metallic and non-
metallic
Non-Metallic – Not like metallic, but often seen
in different varieties as follows
 Luster
Non-Metallic Luster has many varieties :
Adamantine: having a brilliant lustre like that
of diamond, e.g. Cerussite, Cassiterite.
Vitreous: very common, like broken glass, e.g.
Quartz, Hornblende, etc.
Greasy: looking as if covered with thin layer of
oil, e.g. Nepheline, Serpentine.
Waxy: like wax, e.g. Chalcedony
 Luster
Silky : like silk, often shown by fine fibrous
minerals aggregates, e.g. Tiger's eye, Asbestos.
Pearly: Having the appearance of a pearl,
commonly seen on perfect cleavage plane
surfaces, e.g. Micas, Talc.
Resinous: reflects light in a manner similar to
tree sap or resin, e.g. Sphalerite, Sulphur, etc.
Dull/Earthy: Mineral with no lustre, resembling
soil e.g. Kaolinite, Hematite.
Luster
Optical Properties - Diaphaneity
The property of light passing
through a mineral is known as
Diaphaneity. There are three ways
minerals can allow the
transmission of light. These are;
– Transparent
– Translucent
– Opaque
 Cleavage, Fracture and Parting
• These are terms that describing the ways
how a Mineral can break
– Cleavage = When a Mineral breaks along their
Crystallographic planes. In this case the internal
structure and the nature of bonding is the most
important factor
– Parting = Mineral breaks along planes that are
not directly controlled by Crystallographic planes
– Fracture = When the Mineral breaks in irregular
pattern not along any planes
 Cleavage
• As this property is directly controlled by the
Crystal structure this is the most diagnostic
way of breaking.
• The mineral always breaks parallel to the
crystal face or possible face
• There is direct relationship between Bonding
strength and Cleavage
• Weak Van Der Waal’s force or bonds usually
results in good Cleavage
• Metallic bonds are strong and usually do not
cleave
 Cleavage
• Covalent bonds are of intermediate strength
and may or may not form cleavage
• Most minerals with Ionic bonds tends to have
one or more good cleavage
• Cleavage can be described as Perfect, Good,
Distinct, and Indistinct; depending on how
well it breaks
• Perfect cleavage results in lustrous surface
and Indistinct cleavage is hard to distinguish
from Fracture
 Cleavage

Perfect
When it is difficult to break the mineral in any
other direction and the cleavage surfaces are
extensive and smooth, e.g. Muscovite, Biotite,
galena, calcite, etc.
 Cleavage

Good/Distinct
When the minerals break readily along
cleavage planes but can also be broken in other
directions, the cleavage surfaces being smooth
but interrupted by other fractures, e.g.
Hornblende, Augite, Hypersthene, etc.
 Cleavage

Indistinct/Imperfect
When the ease of fracture along the cleavage
plane is only somewhat more pronounced than
in other direction and the cleavage surfaces
tend to be small and much interrupted, e.g.
Olivine, Sphene, Spinel, etc.
 Cleavage
The direction and type of cleavage may be
described as:

• If only 1 set of parallel plane is seen, then '1

Direction of Cleavage' is denoted (e.g. mica)
• If only 2 sets of parallel planes are seen, then
the intersection angle of the two planes must be
given.
If they intersect at right angle, '2 Directions of
Cleavage at 90°' is denoted;
if they do not intersect at right angle, '2 Directions
of Cleavage not at 90°‘ is denoted.
 Cleavage
The direction and type of cleavage may be
described as:

• If only 3 sets of parallel planes are seen, then

'3 Directions of Cleavage at 90°' (termed CUBIC
- salt has cubic cleavage) is denoted or
'3 Directions of Cleavage not at 90°' (termed
RHOMBOHEDRAL - calcite is of this type) is
denoted
 Cleavage

Muscovite: 1 Direction Halite: 3 Direction at 90

Pyroxene: 2 Direction near 90 Calcite: 3 Direction not at 90

 Cleavage

Fluorite: 4 direction
 Parting
• Also known as False Cleavage
• Caused by
– Twin Planes
– Deformation in Crystals
– Inclusions
– Exsolution Lamellae
• Twin Crystals are composite crystals made up
of more than two or more crystals where
individual crystals are related to each other
in a definite crystallographic manner
 Fracture
• When a minerals breaks in irregular surfaces
without any relationship to the crystallographic
planes, i.e., no consistent pattern
• Generally occurs in minerals with similar
bonding strength in all directions
• Types of Fracture
– Conchoidal = Smooth and curving
– Even = more or less Flat
– Hackly = rough, jagged or sharp-edged
– Splintery or Fibrous = like split wood
– Uneven or Irregular = Rough
Fracture
Hackly

Conchoidal

Splintery
 Special Properties
• Magnetism
• Electrical
• Taste
• Odour
• Reaction with Acid
• Double Refraction
• Feel, etc
Special Properties (Miscellaneous)

Some special observations and test are

applicable to few minerals. These are very
helpful/unique diagnostic properties.
Special Properties (Miscellaneous)

Play of colours Feel

(iridescence)
Chatoyancy Striations and twin
striations/lamellae
Twinning Reaction to Acid
Magnetism Taste
Odour Double Refraction
Play of colours (iridescence)

Interference of light either at the surface or in

the interior of a mineral may produce a series
of colours as the angle of incident light
changes. Some specimens of Labradorite, for
example, show colours ranging from blue to
green or yellow with changing angle of
incident light known as labradorescence.
Play of colours (iridescence)
Opalescence
A milky or pearly reflection from the interior
of a mineral is known as opalescence e.g.
opal, moonstone.

These phenomenon may be caused by light

defracted and reflected from closely spaced
fractures, cleavage planes, twin lamellae,
exsolution lamellae, minute foreign inclusions
in parallel orientation or regular stacking of
spheres.
Play of colours (iridescence)

An opal bracelet
 Chatoyancy

An optical phenomenon, exhibited by

certain minerals in reflected light, in
which a moveable wavy or silky sheen
of light that changes its position as the
mineral is turned from one side to
another.
 Chatoyancy
It results from the reflection of light
from cavities, tubes, parallel fibres,
needle like inclusions in the mineral as
seen in Cat’s eye (Chrysoberyl), Tiger’s
eye (fibrous quartz).

When this chatoyant effect is star-

shaped it is termed as asterism.
 Chatoyancy
It results from the reflection of light
from cavities, tubes, parallel fibres,
needle like inclusions in the mineral as
seen in Cat’s eye (Chrysoberyl), Tiger’s
eye (fibrous quartz).

When this chatoyant effect is star-

shaped it is termed as asterism.
 Chatoyancy

Unpolished Tiger’s Eye Polished Tiger’s Eye

Chatoyancy

Cat’s Eye
 Twinning
Composite crystals of single
substance in which individual
parts are related to one another in
a definite crystallographic manner.
 Magnetism

Few minerals are attracted by an

ordinary bar magnet or horse-shoe
magnet and are therefore, can be
easily identified, e.g. Magnetite,
Native Iron etc.
 Odour

Some minerals have characteristic

odour when rubbed and breathed
in. e.g. Sulphur.
 Feel

Smooth, greasy, soapy, harsh or

rough etc. are the kinds of feel of
minerals that may help in their
identification e.g. Talc (soapy feel).
 Striations

Striations are very thin, parallel

grooves on crystal faces (like
grooves on CD) of some minerals
e.g. quartz, pyrite etc. Twin striations
are parallel lines/lamellae on a
mineral’s cleavage surface which is
common in plagioclase feldspar.
 Reaction to acid

A special property exhibited by

minerals containing carbonate. The
mineral will give effervescence when
a drop of diluted HCl is placed on
the specimen. e.g. Calcite.
 Taste
The charaters of minerals dependent
upon taste are only perceptible when
the minerals are soluble in water.
The following terms are used:
saline, alkaline, sweetish, sour, bitter
 Double Refraction
Some transparent substances cause
light to bend or refract in two
different directions, causing light to
divide into two rays. This is called
double refraction or birefringence.
 Double Refraction
When you look at something through
a birefringent substance, you can
see a double image. Iceland spar, a
type of calcite crystal, is birefringent.
Double Refraction
 Chemistry of Minerals/Chemical
Properties

Isostructure : Two Minerals having same crystal

structure but different Chemical Composition;
Example: Halite, Galena, Pyrite

Isotypic : Closely related crystal structure;

Example: Halite, Calcite
 Chemistry of Minerals

Isomorphism – Similar crystal structure

(Cleavage and interfacial angles are
similar); and analogous chemical formula
Example: Spinel group (e.g. magnetite,
chromite), calcite group (e.g. calcite,
dolomite, siderite, rhodochrosite)
 Chemistry of Minerals
Calcite group
Calcite – CaCO3
Dolomite – CaCO3.MgCO3
Siderite – FeCO3
Rhodochrosite – MnCO3

Spinel group
The general formula for spinel group is
RO.R2O3 where R is Mg, Fe, Zn, Mn, and
R is Al, Fe, Cr, Mn
 Chemistry of Minerals

Polymorphism – Same Chemistry, different

Crystal structure and Physical properties
caused by forming under different pressure,
temperature and chemical environment;
Diamond and Graphite
 Chemistry of Minerals

Pseudomorphism – A mineral is replaced by

another without changing the external
form; Calcite and Aragonite, Quartz and
Fluorite, Copper and Cuprite, Gypsum and
Anhydride
 Chemistry of Minerals
• Atomic Substitution or Solid Solution –
Substitution of an element in a mineral by
another. It occurs at ionic form where the
replacement process do not cause any
serious distortion of the structure. Olivine is
an example.
• It means that it is a solid with homogenous
crystal structure where the same position can
be occupied by different ions.
• Other replacement can also occur to balance
the initial change as in Plagioclasse Feldspars
(when Ca replaces Na, Al replaces Si)
 Bowen’s Reaction Series

Bowen determined that specific minerals

form at specific temperatures as a magma
cools.

At the higher temperatures associated

with magmas, the general progression
can be separated into two branches:
 Bowen’s Reaction Series

I. The continuous branch describes the

evolution of the plagioclase feldspars as
they evolve from being calcium-rich to
more sodium rich.
II. The discontinuous branch describes the
formation of the mafic minerals olivine,
pyroxene, amphibole, and biotite mica.
 Bowen’s Reaction Series
• At a certain temperature a magma might
produce olivine, but if that same magma was
allowed to cool further, the olivine would
"react" with the residual magma, and change
to the next mineral on the series (in this case
pyroxene). Continue cooling and the
pyroxene would convert to amphibole, and
then to biotite.
 Bowen’s Reaction Series

• The mineral formed adjusts the internal

crystalline lattice to achieve stability at
different temperatures.

• At lower temperatures, the branches merge

and we obtain the minerals common to the
felsic rocks - orthoclase feldspar, muscovite
mica, and quartz
Bowen’s Reaction Series
The Goldich Stability Series
 Classification of Minerals

Minerals may be classified according to

chemical composition. They are here
categorized by anion group. The list below is in
approximate order of their abundance in the
Earth's crust. The list follows the Dana
classification system which closely parallels the
Strunz Classification.
 Classification of Minerals
No. Class Example
I Silicate Quartz, feldspar, mica etc.
II Carbonate Calcite, aragonite, dolomite
III Sulfate Anhydrite, gypsum, barite, zaherite*
IV Halide Fluorite, halite, sylvite
V Oxide Hematite, magnetite, chromite
VI Sulfide Pyrite, chalcopyrite, galena
VII Phosphate Monazite, apatite
VIII Native/Element Gold, silver, copper
IX Organic Oxalates, mellite, hydrocarbons
 Classification of Minerals
1. Silicate class
The largest group of minerals by far are the
silicates (most rocks are ≥95% silicates), which
are composed largely of silicon and oxygen,
with the addition of ions such as aluminium,
magnesium, iron, and calcium. Some important
rock-forming silicates include the feldspars,
quartz, olivines, pyroxenes, amphiboles,
garnets, and micas.
 Classification of Minerals
2. Carbonate class
The carbonate minerals consist of those minerals containing
the anion (CO3)2− and include calcite and aragonite (both
calcium carbonate), dolomite (magnesium/calcium carbonate)
and siderite (iron carbonate). Carbonates are commonly
deposited in marine settings when the shells of dead
planktonic life settle and accumulate on the sea floor.
Carbonates are also found in evaporitic settings (e.g. the Great
Salt Lake, Utah) and also in karst regions, where the dissolution
and re-precipitation of carbonates leads to the formation of
caves, stalactites and stalagmites. The carbonate class also
includes the nitrate and borate minerals.
 Classification of Minerals
3. Sulfate class
Sulfate minerals all contain the sulfate anion, SO42−.
Sulfates commonly form in evaporitic settings where
highly saline waters slowly evaporate, allowing the
formation of both sulfates and halides at the water-
sediment interface. Sulfates also occur in hydrothermal
vein systems as gangue minerals along with sulfide ore
minerals. Another occurrence is as secondary oxidation
products of original sulfide minerals. Common sulfates
include anhydrite (calcium sulfate), celestine (strontium
sulfate), barite (barium sulfate), and gypsum (hydrated
calcium sulfate, CaSO4.2H2O).
 Zaherite
Zaherite is a mineral, a
complex sulphate of
aluminum, Discovered in
1977 in the Salt range,
Punjab, Pakistan by
Mohamed Abduz Zaher of
the Bangladesh Geological
Survey after whom it was
named.
 Classification of Minerals
4. Halide class
The halide minerals are the group of minerals
forming the natural salts and include fluorite
(calcium fluoride), halite (sodium chloride),
sylvite (potassium chloride), and sal ammoniac
(ammonium chloride). Halides, like sulfates, are
commonly found in evaporite settings such as
salt lakes and landlocked seas such as the Dead
Sea and Great Salt Lake. The halide class includes
the fluoride, chloride, bromide and iodide
minerals.
 Classification of Minerals
5. Oxide class
Oxide minerals are extremely important in mining as they
form many of the ores from which valuable metals can be
extracted. They also carry the best record of changes in the
Earth's magnetic field. They commonly occur as precipitates
close to the Earth's surface, oxidation products of other
minerals in the near surface weathering zone, and as
accessory minerals in igneous rocks of the crust and mantle.
Common oxides include hematite (iron oxide), magnetite
(iron oxide), chromite (iron chromium oxide), spinel
(magnesium aluminium oxide – a common component of the
mantle), ilmenite (iron titanium oxide), rutile (titanium
dioxide) and bauxite (aluminium oxide).
 Classification of Minerals
6. Sulfide class
Many sulfide minerals are economically important
as metal ores. Common sulfides include pyrite
(iron sulfide – commonly known as fools' gold),
chalcopyrite (copper iron sulfide), pentlandite
(nickel iron sulfide), and galena (lead sulfide). The
sulfide class also includes the selenides, the
tellurides, the arsenides, the antimonides, the
bismuthinides, and the sulfosalts (sulfur and a
second anion such as arsenic).
 Classification of Minerals
7. Phosphate class
The phosphate mineral group actually
includes any mineral with a tetrahedral unit
AO4 where A can be phosphorus, antimony,
arsenic or vanadium. By far the most common
phosphate is apatite which is an important
biological mineral found in teeth and bones of
many animals. The phosphate class includes
the phosphate, arsenate, vanadate, and
antimonate minerals.
 Classification of Minerals
8. Element class
The elemental group includes native metals
and intermetallic elements (gold, silver,
copper), semi-metals and non-metals
(antimony, bismuth, graphite, sulfur). This
group also includes natural alloys, such as
electrum (a natural alloy of gold and silver),
phosphides, silicides, nitrides and carbides
(which are usually only found naturally in a
few rare meteorites).
 Classification of Minerals
9. Organic class
The organic mineral class includes biogenic
substances in which geological processes have
been a part of the genesis or origin of the
existing compound. Minerals of the organic
class include various oxalates, mellitates,
citrates, cyanates, acetates, formates,
hydrocarbons and other miscellaneous
species.
Common Rock Forming Minerals
The vast majority of the common igneous
rock-forming minerals belong to the silicate
group, which means that they are based on
silicon and oxygen for their basic elemental
components. The silicates can be further
divided into mafic and felsic - 2 very broad
categories that relate to the other elements
which occur along with the ever-present SiO2.
In any event, from mafic to felsic, the
common igneous rock forming minerals
would include the following:
 Common Rock Forming Minerals
Olivine:
olive green to black, translucent, with a
conchoidal fracture. Olivine phenocrysts are
relatively common in some basaltic rocks
(like those found in Hawaii), and make an
extremely pretty contrast with the black
groundmass of the basalt. A semi-precious
variety occurs (peridot), which can be cut and
faceted like any other gemstone.
Common Rock Forming Minerals
Pyroxene:
green to black, nearly opaque, 2 cleavages
at approx. 90°. Enstatite is a common
member of the pyroxene family, and can be
found in gabbro and mafic diorites.
Pyroxenite, an igneous rock composed
totally of pyroxene minerals, is related to
ultramafic terrains and is therefore relatively
rare at the surface of the earth's crust.
Example: Enstatite, Hypersthene, Augite etc.
Common Rock Forming Minerals
Amphibole:
mostly black, forms long, slender crystals
with 2 cleavages at 60° and 120°. The most
common member of the amphibole family is
hornblende, which is easy to identify in
diorite, granodiorite, and some granites.
Amphibolite is a metamorphic equivalent of
basalt, and can contain extremely coarse
grained specimens of hornblende. Example:
Hornblende, Tremolite, Actinolite etc.
 Common Rock Forming Minerals

Feldspar: all have 2 cleavages at approx. 90° and a

hardness of 6. Approximately 60% of the earth's crust
is composed of feldspar, and I tell my Geology 101
students that it's probably a pretty good idea to be
able to identify the various members of the family.
The mafic variety (plagioclase) may have striations
(very fine "razor-cut" grooves on selected cleavage
faces), but not always. The felsic variety (orthoclase)
can often be pink and has no striations. Both can be
white, which can make a specific determination of
which feldspar a bit awkward (especially if there are
no visible striations). Microcline is another example.
Common Rock Forming Minerals

Mica:
translucent to black (felsic to mafic), with one
(1) perfect cleavage, causing it to easily break
into thin sheets. The mafic mica is called
biotite, with the more felsic member of the
family affectionately referred to as muscovite.
Common Rock Forming Minerals
Quartz:
hard, durable, relatively inert, and no
cleavage (but a great conchoidal fracture).
Quartz is the last mineral to form in a felsic
(granitic) rock, and can generally be found
filling in between all of the other minerals.
When allowed to cool and crystallize in open
space, quartz commonly forms 6-sided
(hexagonal) crystals which are highly prized
and sought after by many people for a variety
of natural (and super-natural) uses. Quartz
varieties-find yourself.