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A Topical Approach To Life-Span Development Chapter 1
A Topical Approach To Life-Span Development Chapter 1
A Topical Approach To Life-Span Development Chapter 1
LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT
NINTH EDITION
JOHN W. SANTROCK
Chapter 1
Introduction
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• Learning Goals
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• The Life-Span Perspective 1
Development
• Pattern of movement or change that begins at conception and
continues through life span
• Includes growth, but also decline and dying
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• The Life-Span Perspective 2
Life-span perspective
• Developmental change throughout adulthood as well as
during childhood
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• Figure 2 Human Life Expectancy at
Birth from Prehistoric to Contemporary
Times
It took 5,000 years to extend human life expectancy from 18
(in prehistoric times) to 41 years of age (in nineteenth-century England).
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© Eliza Snow/iStockPhoto.com
• The Life-Span Perspective 3
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• The Life-Span Perspective 5
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• The Life-Span Perspective 6
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• The Nature of Development 1
Developmental processes
• Biological processes
• Produce changes in an individual’s physical nature
• Examples: height, weight, and motor skill changes
• Cognitive processes
• Involve changes in an individual’s thought, intelligence, and language
• Examples: two-word sentences and solving a puzzle
• Socioemotional processes
• Involve changes in an individual’s relationships with other people,
emotions, and personality
• Examples: smiling in response to interacting with a playmate
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• Figure 6 Processes Involved in Developmental
Changes
Biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes interact as individuals develop.
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• The Nature of Development 2
Periods of development
• Developmental period—a time frame characterized by certain
features
• Eight sequential periods with approximate age ranges
• Widely used for the purposes of organization and understanding
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Development
Significance of age
• Is one age in life better than another?
• Age and happiness
• In the U.S., adults are happier as they age
• Psychological well-being increases after age 50
• Older adults report having more positive emotional experiences than
younger adults
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• The Nature of Development 4
Conceptions of age
• Chronological age—number of years since birth
• Biological age—age in terms of biological health
• Psychological age—adaptive capacities compared with others
of the same chronological age
• Social age—connectedness with others and the social roles
that individuals adopt
Developmental issues
• Nature and nurture: biological inheritance or environmental
experience?
• Stability and change: forever shaped by early experience, or is
there capacity to change?
• Continuity and discontinuity: gradual, cumulative change or
distinct stages?
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• Theories of Development 1
Scientific method
• Conceptualize a process or problem to be studied
• Collect research information (data)
• Analyze data
• Draw conclusions
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• Theories of Development:
Psychoanalytic Theories 1
Psychoanalytic theories
• Describe development as primarily unconscious and heavily
influenced by emotions
• Stress that early experiences with parents deeply shape
development
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Oral Stage Anal Stage Phallic Stage Latency Stage Genital Stage
Infant’s pleasure Child’s pleasure Child’s pleasure Child represses A time of sexual
centers on the focuses on the anus. focuses on the sexual interest and reawakening; source
mouth. genitals. develops social and of sexual pleasure
intellectual skills. becomes someone
outside the family.
Birth to 1½ Years 1½ to 3 Years 3 to 6 Years 6 Years to Puberty Puberty Onward
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• Theories of Development:
Psychoanalytic Theories 2
Erikson’s psychosocial theory
• Primary motivation for human behavior is social and reflects a
desire to affiliate with other people
• Developmental change occurs throughout the life span
• Emphasized the importance of both early and later experiences
• Eight stages, representing eight key crises that must be
resolved
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Erikson’s Developmental
Stages Period
Integrity versus Late adulthood (60s
despair onward)
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• Theories of Development 2
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• Theories of Development:
Cognitive Theories 1
Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory
• Four stages
• Children actively construct their understanding of
the world
• Two key processes: organization and adaptation
• Each age-related stage consists of a distinct way of thinking
• Child’s cognition is qualitatively different in one stage compared with
another
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Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete Operational Formal Operational
Stage Stage Stage Stage
The infant constructs an The child begins to The child can now reason The adolescent reasons in
understanding of the represent the world with logically about concrete more abstract, idealistic,
world by coordinating words and images. These events and classify objects and logical ways.
sensory experiences with words and images reflect into different sets.
physical actions. An infant increased symbolic
progresses from reflexive, thinking and go beyond
instinctual action at birth the connection of sensory
to the beginning of information and physical
symbolic thought toward action.
the end of the stage.
Birth to 2 Years of Age 2 to 7 Years of Age 7 to 11 Years of Age 11 Years of Age
Through Adulthood
Information-processing theory
• Individuals manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize
about it
• Development is gradual rather than stage-like, allowing them
to acquire increasingly complex knowledge and skills
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• Theories of Development 3
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• Figure 14 Bandura’s Social Cognitive
Model
The arrows illustrate how relations between behavior, person/cognition, and
environment are reciprocal rather than one-way. Person/cognition refers to
cognitive processes (for example, thinking and planning) and personal
characteristics (for example, believing that you can control your experiences).
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• Theories of Development:
Ethological Theory 1
Ethological theory
• Behavior is strongly influenced by biology, tied to evolution,
and characterized by critical or sensitive periods
• Presence or absence of certain experiences during specific
time frames has a long-lasting influence
Konrad Lorenz
• European zoologist who studied the behavior of
greylag geese
• Imprinting: rapid, innate learning involving attachment to the
first moving object seen
• Imprinting takes place in a critical period
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• Theories of Development:
Ethological Theory 2
John Bowlby
• Applied ethological theory to human development
• Studied attachment to caregivers
• Attachment over the first year of life has important
consequences throughout the life span
• Secure attachment predicts optimal development in childhood
and adulthood
• Attachment should occur in a sensitive period
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• Theories of Development:
Ecological Theory
Ecological theory
• Emphasizes environmental factors on development
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• Figure 15 Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological
Theory of Development
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory consists of five environmental systems:
microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem.
Jump to long image description
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• Theories of Development 4
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• Research on Life-Span
Development: Methods for
Collecting Data 1
Observation
• Laboratory: observation in a controlled setting where many
complex factors of the “real world” have been removed
• Naturalistic observation: observation of behavior in
real-world settings
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• Research on Life-Span
Development: Methods for
Collecting Data 2
Standardized test
• Test with uniform procedures for administration and scoring
• Allows a person’s performance to be compared with the
performance of others
• Con: assumes behavior is consistent
Case study
• In-depth examination of a single individual
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• Research on Life-Span
Development: Methods for
Collecting Data 3
Physiological measures
• Brain, bodily, and hormone changes
• Heart rate
• Eye movement
• Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI):
electromagnetic waves used to construct images of brain
tissue and biochemical activity
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• Research on Life-Span
Development: Research Designs 1
Descriptive research
• Aims to observe and record behavior
Correlational research
• Strives to describe the strength of the relationship between
two or more events or characteristics
• Prediction is based on the strength of the relationship
• Correlation coefficient: a numerical measure based on
statistical analysis, used to describe the degree of association
between two variables (+1.00 to −1.00)
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• Figure 19 Possible Explanations of Correlational
Data
Correlation does not equal causation. In this example, the observed correlation is that as
permissive parenting increases, children’s self-control decreases. What are the possible
explanations for this observed correlation?
Jump to long image description
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©Jupiterimages/Getty Images RF
• Research on Life-Span
Development: Research Designs 2
Experimental research
• Used to determine if one factor causes another
• Experiment uses carefully related procedures in which one or
more factors are manipulated while all other factors are held
constant
• Independent variable: factor manipulated by the experimenter
• Dependent variable: factor that can change in response;
measured by the experimenter
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• Research on Life-Span
Development: Research Designs 3
Experimental and control groups
• Experimental group: group whose experience is manipulated
by the researcher
• Control group: group that is not manipulated, used for
comparison purposes
• Random assignment: used to determine if participants will be
placed in the experimental group or the control group
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• Figure 20 Principles of Experimental Research
Imagine that you decide to conduct an experimental study of the effects of aerobic
exercise by pregnant women on their newborns’ breathing and sleeping patterns. You
would randomly assign pregnant women to experimental and control groups. The
experimental-group women would engage in aerobic exercise over a specified number of
sessions and weeks. The control group would not. Then, when the infants are born, you
would assess their breathing and sleeping patterns. If the breathing and sleeping patterns
of newborns whose mothers were in the experimental group are more positive than those
of the control group, you would conclude that aerobic exercise caused the positive effects.
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• Research on Life-Span
Development: Time Span of
Research 1
Cross-sectional approach
• Research strategy that simultaneously compares individuals of
different ages
Longitudinal approach
• Research strategy in which the same individuals are studied
over a period of time
• Provides information about stability and change
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• Research on Life-Span
Development: Time Span of
Research 2
Cohort effects
• Effects due to a person’s time of birth, era, or generation—not
to actual age
• Cross-sectional studies can confuse age changes with cohort
effects
• Longitudinal studies are effective in studying age changes, but
only within one cohort
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• Research on Life-Span
Development: Conducting Ethical
Research 1
American Psychological Association (APA) has
established ethical guidelines for research
• Instructs psychologists to protect participants from mental or
physical harm
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• Research on Life-Span
Development: Conducting Ethical
Research 2
1. Informed consent: all participants must know what the
research will involve, including potential risks
• Participants have right to withdraw from study at any point or for any
reason
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• Research on Life-Span
Development: Conducting Ethical
Research 3
Minimizing bias
• Studies are most useful when conducted without bias or
prejudice toward any group of people
Gender bias
• Differences between males and females are often magnified
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Long image descriptions
APPENDIX A
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• Figure 7 Processes and Periods of Development Appendix
The center of the model is the individual’s characteristics: sex, age, health,
etc.
Between the microsystem ring and the exosystem ring is the mesosystem.