Sunil Kumar

SAMPLING
Target Population or Universe
The population to which the investigator wants to
generalize his results
Sampling Unit:
smallest unit from which sample can be selected
Sampling frame
The sampling frame is the list from which the potential
respondents are drawn
 Telephone directory
 List of five star Hotel
 List of student

Sampling scheme
Method of selecting sampling units from sampling frame
Sample: all selected respondent are sample
 SAMPLE
SAMPLE UNIT

SAMPLE

TARGET POPULATION

• A population can be defined as including all people or items

with the characteristic one wishes to understand.
• Because there is very rarely enough time or money to gather
information from everyone or everything in a population, the
goal becomes finding a representative sample (or subset) of
Sunil Kumar
that population.
 All university in India

All university Haryana

List of Haryana university

Three university in haryana

Sunil Kumar
SAMPLING BREAKDOWN
Why Sample?

Get information about large populations

 Lower cost
 More accuracy of results
 High speed of data collection
 Availability of Population elements.
 Less field time
 When it’s impossible to study the whole population

Sunil Kumar
SAMPLING……
 To whom do you want to generalize your results?
 All Five Star Hotel
 All Travel Agency
 All Hotel Customer
 Women aged 15-45 years
 Other
Sample size : Minimum size is 30 no.

Sunil Kumar
SAMPLING…….

 3 factors that influence sample representative-ness

 Sampling procedure
 Sample size
 Participation (response)

 When might you sample the entire population?

 When your population is very small
 When you have extensive resources
 When you don’t expect a very high response

Sunil Kumar
 What is Good Sample?
The sample must be:
1. representative of the population;
2. appropriately sized (the larger the better);
3. unbiased;
4. random (selections occur by chance);

Merits of Sampling
Size of population
Fund required for the study
Facilities
Time
Sunil Kumar
TYPES OF SAMPLE BASED ON TWO FACTORS:

THE RESPRESENATION BASIS

 PROBABILITY SAMPLING
 NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING
ELEMENT SELECTION TECHNIQE
 RESTRICTED SAMPLING
 UN RESTRICTED SAMPLING

Sunil Kumar
Types of Sampling
•Probability sample – a method of sampling that uses of
random selection so that all units/ cases in the population
have an equal probability of being chosen.
• Non-probability sample – does not involve random
selection and methods are not based on the rationale of
probability theory.
Sampling
Techniques

Non-
Probability
Probability
Sunil Kumar
 Probability (Random) Samples
 Simple random sample
 Systematic random sample
 Stratified random sample Probability
Sampling

 Cluster sample
Simple Stratified Cluster
Systematic
Random Random Sampling
Sampling
Sampling Sampling

Proportionate
Dis Proportionate

One- Two Multi-

Stage Stage Stage

Sunil Kumar
Non-Probability Samples
 Convenience samples (ease of access)

sample is selected from elements of a population that

are easily accessible
 Purposive sample (Judgmental Sampling)

You chose who you think should be in the study

 Quota Sampling

 Snowball Sampling (friend of friend….etc.)

Sunil Kumar
Sunil Kumar
 SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING
• Applicable when population is small, homogeneous & readily
available
• All subsets of the frame are given an equal probability. Each
element of the frame thus has an equal probability of
selection. A table of random number or lottery system is used
to determine which units are to be selected.
Advantage
 Easy method to use

 No need of prior information of population

 Equal and independent chance of selection to every element

Disadvantages
 If sampling frame large, this method impracticable.

 Does not represent proportionate Sunil Kumar

reprenation
 Simple random sampling

Every subset of a specified size n from the population

Sunil Kumar
has an equal chance of being selected
 Suitability
• This method is suitable for small homogeneous
• Randomly selecting units from a sampling frame.
‘Random’ means mathematically each unit from the
sampling frame has an equal probability of being
included in the sample.

• Stages in random sampling:

Randomly select Systematically

Define Develop Assign each the required select random
population sampling unit a number amount of numbers until it
frame random numbers meets the sample
Sunil Kumar size requirements
REPLACEMENT OF SELECTED UNITS

 Sampling schemes may be without replacement or with

replacement
 For example, if we catch fish, measure them, and
immediately return them to the water before continuing
with the sample, this is a with replacement design,
because we might end up catching and measuring the
same fish more than once. However, if we do not return
the fish to the water (e.g. if we eat the fish), this becomes
a without replacement design.

Sunil Kumar
 Systematic Sampling
• Similar to simple random sample. No table of random
numbers – select directly from sampling frame. Ratio
between sample size and population size

First unit
Select select by
Work out according to random
Develop what fraction fraction (100 numbers
Define Decide the
sampling of the frame sample from then every
population sample size
frame the sample 1,000 frame then nth unit
size represents 10% so every selected
10th unit) (e.g. every
Sunil Kumar
10th)
Systematic Sampling
ADVANTAGES:
 Sample easy to select

 Suitable sampling frame can be identified easily

 Sample evenly spread over entire reference population

 Cost effective

DISADVANTAGES:
 Sample may be biased if hidden periodicity in population

coincides with that of selection.

 Each element does not get equal chance

 Ignorance of all element between two n element

Sunil Kumar
 Systematic sampling

Every member ( for example: every 20th person) is

Sunil Kumar
selected from a list of all population members.
 The population is divided into two or more groups
called strata, according to some criterion, such as
geographic location, grade level, age, or income, and
subsamples are randomly selected from each strata.

Sunil Kumar
Stratified random sampling can be classified in to
a. Proportionate stratified sampling
It involves drawing a sample from each stratum in
proportion to the letter’s share in total population
b. Disproportionate stratified sampling
proportionate representation is not given to strata
it necessery involves giving over representation to
some strata and under representation to other.

Sunil Kumar
STRATIFIED SAMPLING……
Advantage :
 Enhancement of representativeness to each sample

 Higher statistical efficiency

 Easy to carry out

Disadvantage:
 Classification error

 Time consuming and expensive

 Prior knowledge of composition and of

distribution of population

Sunil Kumar
 Cluster sampling is an example of 'two-stage sampling' .
 First stage a sample of areas is chosen;
 Second stage a sample of respondents within those areas is
selected.
 Population divided into clusters of homogeneous units,
usually based on geographical contiguity.
 Sampling units are groups rather than individuals.
 A sample of such clusters is then selected.
 All units from the selected clusters are studied.
 The population is divided into subgroups (clusters) like
families. A simple random sample is taken of the subgroups
and then all members of the cluster selected are surveyed

Sunil Kumar
 Cluster sampling
Section 1 Section 2

Section 3

Section 5

Section 4

Sunil Kumar
 CLUSTER SAMPLING…….
Advantages :
 Cuts down on the cost of preparing a sampling
frame. This can reduce travel and other
administrative costs.
Disadvantages: sampling error is higher for a simple
random sample of same size. Often used to
evaluate vaccination coverage in EPI

Sunil Kumar
Cluster/ multi-stage random sample
• Cluster sampling: selecting a sample based on specific, naturally occurring
groups (clusters) within a population.
- Example: randomly selecting 20 hospitals from a list of all
hospitals in England.

Multi-stage sampling: cluster sampling repeated at a number of levels.-

Example: randomly selecting hospitals by county and then a sample of
patients from each selected hospital.
Complex form of cluster sampling in which two or more levels of units are
embedded one in the other.
First stage, random number of districts chosen in all
states.
Followed by random number of talukas, villages.
Then third stage units will be houses.
SunilatKumar
All ultimate units (houses, for instance) selected last step are surveyed.
Difference Between Strata and Clusters

 Although strata and clusters are both non-

overlapping subsets of the population, they differ in
several ways.
 All strata are represented in the sample; but only a
subset of clusters are in the sample.
 With stratified sampling, the best survey results
occur when elements within strata are internally
homogeneous. However, with cluster sampling, the
best results occur when elements within clusters are
internally heterogeneous

Sunil Kumar
 Non Probability
CONVENIENCE SAMPLING
 Sometimes known as grab or opportunity sampling or accidental or
haphazard sampling.
 Selection of whichever individuals are easiest to reach
 It is done at the “convenience” of the researcher
 For example, if the interviewer was to conduct a survey at a
shopping center early in the morning on a given day, the
people that he/she could interview would be limited to those
given there at that given time, which would not represent the
views of other members of society in such an area, if the
survey was to be conducted at different times of day and
several times per week.
 This type of sampling is most useful for pilot testing.
 In social science research, snowball sampling is a similar
technique, where existing study subjects are used to recruit more
subjects into the sample.

Sunil Kumar
Convenience Sampling
Advantage: A sample selected for ease of access,
immediately known population group and good response
rate.
Disadvantage: cannot generalise findings (do not know what
population group the sample is representative of) so cannot
move beyond describing the sample.
•Problems of reliability
•Do respondents represent the
target population
•Results are not generalizable
Sunil Kumar
Use results that are easy to get
Judgmental sampling or Purposive sampling
 - The researcher chooses the sample based on who
they think would be appropriate for the study. This is
used primarily when there is a limited number of
people that have expertise in the area being
researched
 Selected based on an experienced individual’s belief
 Advantages
 Based on the experienced person’s judgment

 Disadvantages
 Cannot measure the respresentativeness of the
sample
Sunil Kumar
 QUOTA SAMPLING

 The population is first segmented into mutually exclusive sub-

groups, just as in stratified sampling.
 Then judgment used to select subjects or units from each segment
based on a specified proportion.
 For example, an interviewer may be told to sample 200 females
and 300 males between the age of 45 and 60.
 It is this second step which makes the technique one of non-
probability sampling.
 In quota sampling the selection of the sample is non-random.
 For example interviewers might be tempted to interview those who
look most helpful. The problem is that these samples may be
biased because not everyone gets a chance of selection. This
random element is its greatest weakness and quota versus
probability has been a matter of controversy for many years
Sunil Kumar
 Types of Non probability Sampling Designs
 Quota sampling
 Based on prespecified quotas regarding demographics,
attitudes, behaviors, etc
 Advantages
 Contains specific subgroups in the proportions desired
 May reduce bias
 easy to manage, quick
 Disadvantages
 Dependent on subjective decisions
 Not possible to generalize
 only reflects population in terms of the quota, possibility of
bias in selection, no standard error

Sunil Kumar
 Snowball Sampling
 Useful when a population is hidden or difficult to gain access to. The
contact with an initial group is used to make contact with others.
 Respondents identify additional people to included in the study
 The defined target market is small and unique
 Compiling a list of sampling units is very difficult
 Advantages
 Identifying small, hard-to reach uniquely defined target population
 Useful in qualitative research
 access to difficult to reach populations (other methods may not
yield any results).
 Disadvantages
 Bias can be present
 Limited generalizability
 not representative of the population and will result in a biased
sample as it is self-selecting. Sunil Kumar
 Potential Sources of Error in Research Designs

Total Error

Random Sampling Non-sampling Error

Error

Response Error Non-response Error

Researcher Error Interviewer Error Respondent Error

Surrogate Information Error Respondent Selection Error Inability Error

Measurement Error Questioning Error Unwillingness Error
Population Definition Error Recording Error
Sampling Frame Error Cheating Error
Sunil Kumar
Data Analysis Error
 Errors in Hospitality Research
 The total error is the variation between the true mean value in the
population of the variable of interest and the observed mean value
obtained in the marketing research project.
 Random sampling error is the variation between the true mean value
for the population and the true mean value for the original sample.
 Non-sampling errors can be attributed to sources other than sampling,
and they may be random or nonrandom: including errors in problem
definition, approach, scales, questionnaire design, interviewing methods,
and data preparation and analysis. Non-sampling errors consist of
non-response errors and response errors.
 Non-response error arises when some of the respondents included in
the sample do not respond.
 Response error arises when respondents give inaccurate answers or
their answers are misrecorded or misanalyzed

Sunil Kumar
Sampling Error and
Confidence
• The larger the sample size the more likely error in the sample
will decrease.
•But, beyond a certain point increasing sample size does not
provide large reductions in sampling error.
•Accuracy is a reflection of the sampling error and confidence
level of the data.

Sunil Kumar
Errors in Sampling
 Non-Observation Errors
 Sampling error: naturally occurs
 Coverage error: people sampled do not match the
population of interest
 Underrepresentation

 Non-response: won’t or can’t participate

Sunil Kumar
Errors of Observation
 Interview error- interaction between interviewer and
person being surveyed
 Respondent error: respondents have difficult time
answering the question
 Measurement error: inaccurate responses when
person doesn’t understand question or poorly
worded question
 Errors in data collection

Sunil Kumar
Sunil Kumar