REACTIVE POWER AND

VOLTAGE CONTROL
 What is Reactive Power?
•While active power is the energy supplied to run a motor,
• .
heat a home, or illuminate an electric light bulb, reactive
power reflects the amount of magnetizing current being
used

•It provides the important function of regulating voltage.

 What is Reactive Power?
•If voltage on the system is not high enough, active power
• .
cannot be supplied.

•Reactive power is used to provide the voltage levels

necessary for active power to do useful work.

•Reactive power is essential to move active power through

the transmission and distribution system to the customer
 Voltage control and reactive-power
management
• Voltage control and reactive-power management are two
aspects of a single activity that both supports reliability
and facilitates commercial transactions across
transmission networks.
• On an alternating-current (AC) power system, voltage is
controlled by managing production and absorption of
reactive power.
• There are three reasons why it is necessary to manage
reactive power and control voltage.
 Voltage control and reactive-power
management
• Firstly, both customer and power-system equipment are
designed to operate within a range of voltages, usually
within ±5% of the nominal voltage.
• High voltages can damage equipment and shorten their
lifetimes
 Voltage control and reactive-power
management
At low voltages
Many types of equipment perform poorly
Light bulbs provide less illumination
Induction motors can overheat and be damaged
Some electronic equipment will not operate at.
 Voltage control and reactive-power
management
• Secondly, reactive power consumes transmission and
generation resources.
• To maximize the amount of real power that can be
transferred across a congested transmission interface,
reactive-power flows must be minimized.
 Voltage control and reactive-power
management
• Similarly, reactive-power production can limit a
generator’s real-power capability.
• Thirdly, moving reactive power on the transmission
system incurs real-power losses. Both capacity and
energy must be supplied to replace these losses.
 Need for Voltage control
• Voltage control in an electrical power system is important
• For proper operation for electrical power equipment to
prevent damage such as overheating of generators and
motors,
• To reduce transmission losses
• To maintain the ability of the system to withstand and
prevent voltage collapse.
 Need for Voltage control
• In general terms, decreasing reactive power causing
voltage to fall while increasing it causing voltage to rise.
• A voltage collapse occurs when the system try to serve
much more load than the voltage can support
 Need for Voltage control
• Voltage control is complicated by two additional factors.
• Firstly, the transmission system itself is a nonlinear consumer
of reactive power, depending on system loading.
• At very light loading the system generates reactive power
that must be absorbed, while at heavy loading the system
consumes a large amount of reactive power that must be
replaced.
• The system’s reactive-power requirements also depend on
the generation and transmission configuration.
 Need for Voltage control
• Consequently, system reactive requirements vary in time as load
levels and load and generation patterns change.
• The bulk-power system is composed of many pieces of equipment,
any one of which can fail at any time.
• Therefore, the system is designed to withstand the loss of any single
piece of equipment and to continue operating without impacting any
customers.
• That is, the system is designed to withstand a single contingency.

.
 Need for Voltage control
• Taken together, these two factors result in a dynamic reactive-power
requirement.
• The loss of a generator or a major transmission line can have the
compounding effect of reducing the reactive supply and, at the same
time, reconfiguring flows such that the system is consuming
additional reactive power.
 Need for Voltage control
• At least a portion of the reactive supply must be capable
of responding quickly to changing reactive-power
demands and to maintain acceptable voltages
throughout the system.
• Thus, just as an electrical system requires real-power
reserves to respond to contingencies, so too it must
maintain reactive-power reserves.
 Need for Voltage control
• Loads can also be both real and reactive.
• The reactive portion of the load could be served from the
transmission system.
• Reactive loads incur more voltage drop and reactive
losses in the transmission system than do similar-size
(MVA) real loads.
 Need for Voltage control
• Vertically integrated utilities often include charges for
provision of reactive power to loads in their rates.
• With restructuring, the trend is to restrict loads to operation
at near zero reactive power demand (a 1.0 power factor).
 Need for Voltage control
• The system operator proposal limits loads to power factors
between 0.97 lagging (absorbing reactive power) and 0.99
leading.
• This would help to maintain reliability of the system and
avoid the problems of market power in which a company
could use its transmission lines to limit competition for
generation and increase its prices
 Need for Voltage control
• Synchronous generators, SVC and various types of other
DER (Distributed energy resource) equipment are used to
maintain voltages throughout the transmission system.
• Injecting reactive power into the system raises voltages,
and absorbing reactive power lowers voltages.
• Voltage-support requirements are a function of the
locations and magnitudes of generator outputs and
customer loads and of the configuration of the DER
transmission system.
.
 Need for Voltage control
• These requirements can differ substantially from location
to location and can change rapidly as the location and
magnitude of generation and load change.
• At very low levels of system load, transmission lines act as
capacitors and increase voltages.
 Need for Voltage control
• At high levels of load, however, transmission lines absorb
reactive power and thereby lower voltages.
• Most transmission-system equipment (e.g., capacitors,
inductors, and tap-changing transformers) is static but
can be switched to respond to changes in voltage-support
requirements
 Need for Voltage control
• System operation has three objectives when managing
reactive power and voltages.
• Firstly, it must maintain adequate voltages throughout
the transmission and distribution system for both current
and contingency conditions.
• Secondly, it seeks to minimize congestion of real-power
flows.
 Need for Voltage control
• Thirdly, it seeks to minimize real-power losses.
• However, the mechanisms that system operators use to
acquire and deploy reactive-power resources are
changing.
• These mechanisms must be fair to all parties as well as
effective. Further, they must be demonstrably fair.
 How Are Voltages Controlled?
•Voltages• are
. controlled by providing sufficient reactive
power control margin to “modulate” and supply needs
through:
1.Shunt capacitor and reactor compensations
2.Dynamic compensation
3.Proper voltage schedule of generation.
 How Are Voltages Controlled?
•Voltages• are
. controlled by predicting and correcting
reactive power demand from loads.
Reactive Power Management and Control is
Critical for Overall System Stability
Voltage Must be Maintained Within
Acceptable
• . Levels
•Under normal system conditions, both peak or off peak
load conditions, the voltages need to be maintained
between 95% and 105% of the nominal.
•Low voltage conditions could result in equipment
malfunctions:
1.Motor will stall, overheat or damage
Voltage Must be Maintained Within
Acceptable
• . Levels
2. Reactive power output of capacitors will be reduced
as it is proportional to square of the voltage
3. Generating units may trip.
High voltage conditions may:
1.Damage major equipment – insulation failure
2.Automatically trip major transmission equipment
Reactive Power :Sources & Sinks
Sources Transmission System Sinks

Line Charging (Source)

Synchronous Synchronous
Condensers Condensers
& Generators Reactive Losses (Sink) & Generators

Reactors
Capacitors Reactive Load
Reactive
flow across
interconnections Reactive
flow across
interconnections
 Voltage and Reactive Power

• Voltage and reactive power must be

properly managed and controlled to:

1. Provide adequate service quality

2. Maintain proper stability of the power

system.
Maintain Proper Stability of the Power System
 Voltage Collapse Phenomenon
Inadequate reactive support

Which results in:

Voltage drops

Which results in:

Reduced reactive power from capacitors and line charging

Which results in:

Less reactive power support

Which results in:

Greater voltage drops

Which results in:

Tripping of generating units due to low auxiliary voltage level or TCUL actions or
generator field current limiters

VOLTAGE COLLAPSE
Voltage & Reactive Power Planning And
Assessment Practices
Key Principles:

• Reactive power cannot be transmitted over a

long distance or through power transformers
due to excessive reactive power losses.

• Reactive power supply should be located in

close proximity to its consumption.
Voltage & Reactive Power Planning And
Assessment Practices
Key Principles:

• Sufficient static and dynamic voltage support is

needed to maintain voltage levels within an
acceptable range.

• Sufficient reactive power reserves must be available

to regulate voltage at all times.
 Voltage & Reactive Power Planning
And Assessment Practices
Key Implications:

• Metering must be in place and maintained to capture

actual reactive consumption at various points.

• Transmission and Distribution planners must

determine in advance the required type and location of
reactive correction.
 Voltage & Reactive Power Planning And
Assessment Practices
Key Implications:

• Reactive power devices must be maintained and

functioning properly to ensure the correct amount of
reactive compensation.

• Distribution reactive loads must be fully compensated

before transmission reactive compensation is considered.
 Reactive Power and Power Factor

• Reactive power is present when the voltage and current are

not in phase:
• Measured in volt-ampere reactive (VAR)
• Produced when the current waveform leads voltage
waveform (Leading power factor)
• Vice versa, consumed when the current waveform lags
voltage (lagging power factor)
 Reactive Power Limitations
• Reactive power does not travel very far.
• Usually necessary to produce it close to the location
where it is needed
Transmitting Reactive Power

Reactive power cannot be effectively

transmitted across long distances or through
power transformers due to high I2X losses.
 Reactive Power Limitations
• A supplier/source close to the location of the need is in a much better
position to provide reactive power versus one that is located far from
the location of the need
• Reactive power supplies are closely tied to the ability to deliver real
or active power
Reactive Power Location

Reactive power should be located in close

proximity to its consumption.
 Static vs. Dynamic Voltage Support

• The type of reactive compensation required is

based on the time needed for voltage recovery.

• Static Compensation is ideal for second and minute

responses. (capacitors, reactors, tap changes).
 Static vs. Dynamic Voltage Support

• Dynamic Compensation is ideal for instantaneous

responses. (condensers, generators, FACTS
controllers)

• A proper balance of static and dynamic voltage

support is needed to maintain voltage levels within an
acceptable range.
 Reactive Reserves during Varying Operating
Conditions

• Ideally, the system capacitors, reactors, and condensers

should be operated to supply the normal reactive load.
• As the load increases or following a contingency,
additional capacitors should be switched on or reactors
removed to maintain acceptable system voltages.
 Reactive Reserves during Varying Operating
Conditions
• The reactive capability of the generators should be largely
reserved for contingencies on the EHV system or to
support voltages during extreme system operating
conditions.
• Load shedding schemes must be implemented if a
desired voltage is unattainable thru reactive power
reserves.
 VOLTAGE COORDINATION

• The reactive sources must be coordinated to ensure that

adequate voltages are maintained everywhere on the
interconnected system during all possible system
conditions.
• Maintaining acceptable system voltages involves the
coordination of sources and sinks.
 VOLTAGE COORDINATION
The consequences of uncoordinated operations would
include:
1. Increased reactive power losses
2. A reduction in reactive margin available for
contingencies and extreme light load conditions
3. Excessive switching of shunt capacitors or reactors
4. Increased probability of voltage collapse conditions.
 VOLTAGE SCHEDULE
• Each power plant is requested to maintain a particular voltage on
the system bus to which the plant is connected.
• The assigned schedule will permit the generating unit to typically
operate:
1. In the middle of its reactive capability range during normal
conditions
2. At the high end of its reactive capability range during
contingencies
3. “Under excited” (absorb) under extreme light load conditions.
VOLTAGE AND REACTIVE POWER CONTROL
• Requires the coordination work of all Transmission and
Distribution disciplines.
VOLTAGE AND REACTIVE POWER CONTROL
Transmission needs to:
1. Forecast the reactive demand and required reserve margin
2. Plan, engineer, and install the required type and location of
reactive correction
3. Maintain reactive devices for proper compensation
4. Maintain meters to ensure accurate data
5. Recommend the proper load shedding scheme if necessary.
VOLTAGE AND REACTIVE POWER CONTROL
Distribution needs to:
1. Fully compensate distribution loads before Transmission
reactive compensation is considered
2. Maintain reactive devices for proper compensation
3. Maintain meters to ensure accurate data
4. Install and test automatic under voltage load shedding
schemes
 Generation and Absorption of Reactive Power

• Shunt Capacitors
• Apart from synchronous machines, static shunt
capacitors offer the cheapest means of reactive
power supply but these are not as flexible as
synchronous condenser.
• Shunt reactors
• Shunt reactors offer the cheapest means of
reactive power absorption and these are
connected in the transmission line during light
load conditions.
Generation and Absorption of Reactive Power
• Overhead lines
• When fully loaded, line absorb reactive power with a
current of I ampere for a line of reactance per phase X
in ohm the VARs absorbed I2X per phase.
• On light loads, the shunt capacitance of longer lines
may become predominant and lines become VAR
generators.
• Transformers
• Transformers always absorb reactive power.
 Generation and Absorption of Reactive
Power
• Cables
• Cables generate more reactive power than
transmission lines because the cables have high
capacitance.
• A 275kV, 240 MVA cable produces 6 to 7.5 MVAR
per km; a 132kV cable roughly 1.856 MVAR per
km and a 33kV cable, 0.12MVAR per km.
Generation and Absorption of Reactive
Power
Loads
• In planning a network it is desirable to assess the
reactive power requirements to ascertain
whether the generators are able to operate at the
required power factors for the extremes of load
to be expected.
 VOLTAGE CONTROL - OBJECTIVES
• Practically all equipments are used in power
systems is rated for a certain voltage with a
permissible band of voltage variations.
• Voltage at various buses must, therefore, be
controlled within specified regulation figure.
• The task of voltage control is closely associated
with fluctuating load conditions and
corresponding requirements of reactive power
compensation.
 Methods of Voltage Control
1. Excitation control and voltage regulators in generating
station
2. Use of tap changing transformers at sending and
receiving end of the transmission line
3. Shunt reactors - Low loads
4. Shunt capacitor - High loads or low p.f
5. Series capacitor - Long EHV line
6. Static VAR Compensator(SVC)
7. Synchronous condenser
 Series capacitor
• Series compensation is commonly used in high-voltage
AC transmission systems.
• Series compensation increases power transmission
capability, both steady state and transient, of a
transmission line.
• Since there is increasing opposition from the public to
construction of EHV transmission lines, series
capacitors are attractive for increasing the capabilities
of transmission lines.
 Series capacitor
• Power transmitted through the transmission system shown
in fig is given by:

Where
P2 = Power transmitted through the transmission
system
V1 = Voltage at sending end of the line
V2 = Voltage at receiving end of transmission line
XL= Reactance of the transmission line
δ = Phase angle between V1 and V2
 Series capacitor
• Equation shows that if the total reactance of a
transmission system is reduced by installing
capacitance in series with the line, the power
transmitted through the line can be increased.
 Shunt Reactor
• Since most loads are inductive and consume
lagging reactive power, the compensation required
is usually supplied by leading reactive power.
• Shunt compensation of reactive power can be
employed either at load level, substation level, or
at transmission level.
 Shunt Reactor
• Shunt reactor compensation is usually required
under conditions that are the opposite of that
requiring shunt capacitor compensation.
 Shunt Reactor
• Shunt reactors may be installed in the following
conditions:
• To compensate for over voltages occurring at
substations served by long lines during low-load
periods, as a result of the line’s capacitance (Ferranti
effect as voltage tip up)

• To compensate for leading power factors at generating

plants, resulting in lower transient and steady-state
stability limits
 Shunt Reactor
• Shunt reactors may be installed in the following
conditions:

• To reduce open-circuit line charging kVA

requirements in extra high-voltage (EHV)
systems.
 Shunt Reactor
• Light load condition- shunt reactors required to
maintain normal voltage may be connected to the
EHV bus or tertiary winding of adjacent
transformers.
• Heavy load condition- reactors may have to be
disconnected. This is achieved by switching reactors
using circuit breakers.
• Shunt reactors are similar in construction to
transformers, but have a single winding/phase on an
iron core with air gaps and immersed in oil. They
may be of either single phase or three phases
 Shunt Capacitor
• Shunt capacitors supply capacitive reactive power
to the system at the point where they are
connected, mainly to counteract the out-of-phase
component of current required by an inductive
load.
 Shunt Capacitor

• They may either be energized continuously or

switched on and off during load cycles.

Fig. Use of shunt capacitors to counteract out-of-phase current

component
Shunt Capacitor

• The application of shunt capacitors in a

network with a lagging power factor has the
following benefits:
• Increase voltage level at the load
• Improve voltage regulation (if the
capacitors are switched in and out of the
network correctly)Reduce I 2R active
power loss and I 2X reactive power loss
due to the reduction in current
• Increase power factor
 Shunt Capacitor
• The application of shunt capacitors in a
network with a lagging power factor has the
following benefits:
• Decrease kVA (or mVA) loading on the
source generators and network to relieve
an overload condition or make capacity
available for additional load growth
• Reduce demand kVA where power is
purchased
• Reduce investment in system facilities
per kW of load supplied.
 Synchronous Condenser

• A Synchronous condenser is a synchronous machine

running without a prime mover or a mechanical load.
It has wide variation excitation control. It can be made
to either generate or absorb reactive power.
• With an automatic voltage regulator (AVR), it can
be automatically adjust the reactive power output to
maintain constant terminal voltage. It draws a small
amount of reactive power from the power system to
supply losses.
 Synchronous Condenser

• Synchronous condenser has been used for voltage

and reactive power control at both transmission and
sub transmission levels. They are often connected to
the tertiary windings of transformers.
Synchronous Condenser
 Synchronous Condenser
• Advantages:
• Synchronous compensators contribute to
system short circuit capacity.
• Their reactive power production is not affected
by the system voltage.
• During power swings there is an exchange of
kinetic energy between a synchronous
condenser and the power system.
 Synchronous Condenser
• Advantages:
• It has an internal voltage source and is better
able to cope with low system voltage
conditions.
• Disadvantages
• Due to high capital cost and complexity,
synchronous condensers are no more preferred
 Tap Changing Transformer
• All power transformers on transmission lines are
provided with taps for control of secondary voltage.
• The tap changing transformers do not control voltage by
regulating the flow of reactive VAR s but by changing
transformation ratio
• There are two types of tap changing transformer.
1. OFF LOAD TAP CHANGING TRANSFORMER
2. ON LOAD TAP CHANGING TRANSFORMER
OFF LOAD TAP CHANGING TRANSFORMER
• Off load tap changers, which requires the
disconnection of the transformer when the tap
setting is to be changed.
• Off load tap changers are used when it is to be
operated in frequently due to load growth or some
seasonal change.

V
 ON LOAD TAP CHANGING TRANSFORMER
• It is used when changes in transformer ratio to be needed frequently, and
• No need to switch off the transformer to change the tap of transformer.
• it is used on power transformers, auto transformers and bulk distribution
transformers and at other points of load service.
 ON LOAD TAP CHANGING TRANSFORMER
• In the fig shown, the voltage is maximum and since the
currents divide equally and flow in opposition through the coil
between Q1 and Q2 the resultant flux is zero and hence
minimum impedance.
• To reduce the voltage, the following operations and required in
sequence:
• Open Q1
• Move Selector Switch S1 to the next contact
• Close Q1
• Open Q2
• Move Selector Switch S2 to the next contact
• Close Q2