Section 14

Unit 40
Planning and Constructing Agricultural Structures
Building Construction

1
Roof Construction

2
 Roof Framing
• After the roof design is selected, the next decision is the type of
roof construction-- trusses or stick built.
• Trusses.
– Less labor to install trusses than to stick build roof.
– Factory built
• Better quality control
• Reduced construction cost
• Hauled to site and lifted into place
– Computers allow complex designs.
• Stick built
– Higher labor costs for complex roofs
– More variability in quality
– High level of skill required to produce complex rafters
– Requires more scaffolding and other supports for construction

3
 Roof--Truss
• Different types of trusses can be used when the roof is not stick built.
• The type used will be determined by the use of the building, size of
the building or the owner/builder preferences.
• Most trusses are custom built for the design and use of the building.
• Trusses can be wood or metal
• Truss nomenclature:

Rafters
Gussets
Webs

Bottom Cord Posts

4
 Types of Roof Trusses
Many different types of roof trusses are available.
Companies can custom build trusses for an individual building
Mono (single slope)
Sheds attached to buildings
Spans 20 to 30 ft

Scissors
High center clearance
Spans 20 to 40 ft

Fink
Poplar efficient design
Spans 20 to 50 ft

Wowe
Heavier ceiling loads than fink truss
Spans 20 to 50 ft
5
 Types of Roof Trusses--cont

Pratt
Used with or without
ceilings
Spans 20 to 60 ft

Belgian
Extended fink truss
Spans up to 80 ft

Bowstring
Difficult to construct
Spans 40 to 120 ft

6
Roof Pitch

7
 Roof Framing-cont.
Pitch

• Whether using roof trusses or stick building the roof, the must
pitch of the roof must be selected.
• Pitch is the slope of the roof.
• Traditionally roof pitch was indicated by a fraction(1/3, 1/4, Etc.).
– When a fraction is used, it is the rise over the span.

8
 Roof Framing-cont.
Pitch Problem

• Determine the rise for the rafter in the illustration for a 1/3 pitch.

Rise
Pitch =
Span
Rise = Pitch x Span
1
= x 24 ft = 8 ft
3

9
 Roof Framing-cont.
Slope Triangle
• A triangle (slope triangle) is also used to indicate roof slope.
• A slope triangle indicates the rise/run.

• The slope triangle in the illustration indicates that for every 12

inches of run there will be 3 inches of rise.
– Because a ratio is used, the 3 and 12 can have any units as long as
they are both the same. Three (3) feet & twelve (12) feet would
have the same rafter slope as 3 inches and 12 inches.
• The use of the slope triangle reinforces the concept the a rafter
is the hypotenuse of a right triangle.
10
 Roof Framing-cont.
Slope Triangle Problem

• Determine the rise for the rafter in the illustration.

Span
Run = = 12 ft
2

Run 12 ft

Rise = x 3 = x 3 = 3 ft
12 12



11
Stick Build Rafters

12
 Stick Built Rafter
Terms

• A common rafter is the hypotenuse of a right triangle.

• The plumb cut is made so that the ends of two rafters will fit
together.
– They are fitted flush when used in a rafter truss.
– A ridge board is used when the rafters are “stick built”.
13
 Stick Built Rafter Terms-cont.

• The tail cut can be left several

ways. Common are:
– Plumb
– Square
– Horizontal (flat)
– Decorative

14
 Stick Built Rafter Terms-cont.

• The birds mouth is used to increase the contact area between the
rafter and the top plate.
– Must not extend more than 1/2 way through the dimension of the
board.
• Excessive depth can cause the rafter to split.

15
 Stick Built Rafter Steps

• Four (4) steps in laying out a common rafter.

1. Mark the angle at the ridge board end (plumb cut) of the rafter.
2. Determine the rafter length.
3. Mark the location and size of the birds mouth.
4. Mark the angle of the rafter at the overhang.

16
 Stick Built Rafter
Step 1-Plumb cut
• The angle at the end of a rafter is determined by the pitch.
• The angle can be calculated in degrees and laid out with a
protractor.
• Because a rafter is the hypotenuse of a right triangle, a
framing square or a speed square can be used.

17
 Stick Built Rafter Steps.
Step One-Plumb Cut cont.

• Mark the plumb cut on the

rafter.
– Place the 12 inch mark on the
body of the square on one
edge of the board.
– Rotate the square until the
inches of rise is on the tongue
of the square and on the same
edge of the board.
– Mark along the edge of the
tongue.

In this example the rise per

foot of run is 8 inches. Remember: the same edge of the
square must be on the same edge of
the board.

18
 Stick Built Rafter Steps.
Square Use
Two examples of incorrect use of square.

Incorrect because the square marks are on two

different edges of the board.

Incorrect because one square

mark is on the outside edge of
the square and one mark is on
the inside edge of the square.

Correct because both edges of

the square are on the same edge
of the board.

19
 Stick Built Rafter Steps.
Step 2-Determine the length
• The second step is to determine
the length of the rafter.
– The length is the distance from
the peak of the roof to the end of
the top plate.
– One half the thickness of the
ridge board must be deducted
when it is used.
• The rafter length can be
determined by calculation or by
stepping.
• Determining rafter length by
calculation:
– Pythagorean Theorem a2 = b2 + c2
a = b2 + c2
20
 Stick Built Rafter Steps.
Length by Calculation
• Determine the total length of a common rafter for a building with a span of
12 ft. 6 in. and a 1/3 pitch. The building will use a 2 x 6 ridge board and a 6
in. overhang.
1
Rafter rise = rise = span x pitch = 12.5 ft x = 4.17 ft
3

a = b2  c2 = 6.252  4.172

Rafter length = = 39.0625 + 17.39
= 7.51... ft

Subtracting 1/2 of ridge = 7.51... ft - 0.0625 ft = 7.451 ft

 1
Overhang rise = rise = span x pitch = 12.0 in x = 4.0 in
3
 a = b2  c2 = 62  42 = 36 + 16
Length of overhang = = 7.21 in

7.21
Total length = 7.451 ft + ft  8.05 ft or 8 ft
12

21


Stepping A Rafter

22
 Rafter Length by Stepping

• The stepping process uses

the rise and run.
– Works best with a span that
is an even foot.

• Example: A building has eight (8) inches of rise per foot of run
and the run is five (5) feet. It will use a 12 inch overhang.
– The square is aligned like making a plumb cut. In this case 12
and 8 is used.
– A line is drawn for the plumb cut and the 12 inch mark on the
square is marked on the board.

23
Rafter Length by Stepping-cont.

The square is “stepped” along

the board for each foot of run.

24
Rafter Length by Stepping-cont.

Process is continued
until the width of the run
is “stepped” off.

25
At this point the
adjustment is made for
the ridge board, if one is Step 4
used.

At this point the length of the rafter will be correct

for a building with a run of five (5) feet.

If an overhang is used, the

additional length must be
“stepped off” for the overhang.
Step 5

26
Stick Built Rafter Steps.
Step Three-Birds Mouth
If the building did not
have an overhang, the
rafter would be cut off
at this point.

27
 Stick Built Rafter
Step Four--Overhang

• Laying out the

overhang requires two
(2) steps.
• In the first step the 12
inch distance of the
overhang is marked.

28
 Stick Built Rafter
Step Four--Overhang-cont.

– The second step is to

mark the end cut.
– In this example it is a
plumb cut.
– The same ratio is
used.
– If a square cut is
desired, a line square
with the edge would
be marked.

29
Building Materials

30
Wood

31
 Building Materials-Lumber

• Lumber refers to the wooden members that measure from 1 to 6

inches thick, 2 to 12 inches wide and 6 to 16 feet long.
• Wooden members less than 1 inch thick are called boards.
• Wooden members greater than 6 inches thick are called
timbers.
• Lumber and boards are sized by “nominal” sizes.
 The actual size is less than the name size.

32
 Wood Terminology
Hard wood—Soft woods

• All native species of trees are divided

into two classes.
– Hard wood have broad leaves and are deciduous
– Soft woods are conifers

33
 Wood Terminology--cont.
Heartwood and sapwood

• Sapwood is the outer portion that

Sap wood
conducts sap and has the living Bark
cells.
– Thickness will vary, but usually
from 1-1/2 to 2 inches on a
mature tree.
• Heartwood is the inactive cells in
the inner portion.
– Mineral deposits may cause
darker color.
Heart wood
– Deposits make wood more
durable.

34
 Wood Terminology--cont.
Growth rings
• Springwood Summerwood
– Inner part of the growth ring
– Usually larger cavities and thin
walls
• Summerwood
– Outer part of growth ring
– Smaller cells and thicker walls.
• A tree grows one springwood and
one summerwood ring each year.
– Used to age trees

Springwood

35
 Wood Terminology--cont.
Sawing Direction
• Plain sawn (Flat sawn)
– Board is sawed “parallel” to growth rings
– Most common boards.

• Quarter sawn
– Log is first quartered
– Boards are cut “perpendicular” to
the grain.
– Usually must be special ordered.

36
 Wood Terminology--cont.
Board Foot
• Lumber is sized as rough sawn and
finished dimensions.
– Rough sawn is as it comes out of the
saw mill.
– Finished dimensions is after the saw
marks have been removed and the
lumber is dried.
• Finished dimensions are always less
than rough sawn lumber.
• The rough sawn dimension is usually
referred to as the nominal size.

37
 Lumber Sizes

Rough Size Actual Size Board Feet

(in) (in) per Foot of
Length
1 x 4 3/4 x 3-1/2 1/3
1 x 6 3/4 x 5-1/2 1/2
1 x 8 3/4 x 7-1/4 2/3
1 x 10 3/4 x 9-1/4 5/6
1 x 12 3/4 x 11-1/4 1
2 x 4 1-1/2 x 3-1/2 2/3
2 x 6 1-1/2 x 5-1/2 1
2 x 8 1-1/2 x 7-1/4 1-1/3
2 x 10 1-1/2 x 9-1/4 1-2/3
2 x 12 1-1/2 x 11-1/4 2
4 x 4 3-1/2 x 3-1/2 1-1/3
6 x 6 5-1/2 x 5-1/2 3 38
 Softwood Construction
Lumber Standard
Dimensions
Thickness (inches) Width (inches)

Nominal Dry

1 3/4

1-1-4 1

1-1/2 1-1/4

2 1-1/2

2-1/2 2

3 2-1/2

3-1/2 3

4 3-1/2

1/2 4

5+ 1/2 “ less

39
 Wood Terminology--cont.
Board Foot

• Lumber is sold on nominal size

• Lumber is priced by rough sawn
dimensions using the unit called
“board foot”.
• A board foot is a volume of lumber for a board that is one (1) inch thick,
twelve (12) inches wide and twelve (12) inches long.
• One board foot = 144 in3
• Nominal sizes are used to calculate board feet when purchasing.
• Actual sizes are used when calculating loads or strength.

length (ft) x width (in) x depth (in)

Bf =
12
Equations:
or

length (in) x width (in) x depth (in)

Bf =
144

 40
 Wood Terminology--cont.
Board Foot Example
• Determine the number of board feet for the following list of
dimensioned lumber.
– 2-2 x 4 x 12
– 3-1 x 4 x 10 Bf =
length (ft) x width (in) x depth (in)
– 2-4 x 4 x 8 12
12 x 4 x 2
= 2 x  16 Bf
12
10 x 4 x 1
= 3 x  10 Bf
12
8 x 4 x 4
= 2 x  21.33 Bf
12

16 + 10 + 21.33 = 47.33 Bf




41
 Wood Characteristics
• Ease of working
– Tree species vary on workability and machineability.
• Paint holding ability
– Paint holds better on edge grain that on flat train
– Knots do not hold paint well
– The bark side of a flat sawed board will usually hold paint better
than the inner side.
• Nail holding power
– Related to density and its splitting tendencies
– Denser and harder woods hold better if they do not split.
• Decay resistance
– Wood that is continuously dry or continuously wet does not decay.
– Ideal decay conditions are 21-24% moisture
– The heartwood of some species is very decay resistant.

42
 Wood Characteristics-cont.
Bending strength

• Bending strength is determined by 6 characteristics.

1. Number of defects
2. Size of defects
3. Type of defects
4. Species
5. Density and moisture content
6. Grain orientation

43
 Wood Terminology--cont
Defects

Wane (Bark)
Knot

Shake

Split

Cross grain crack

Sloping grain

44
Wood Terminology--cont
Defects

45
 Grain Orientation

Wood is stronger when

forces are applied parallel to
the grain than when force is
applied perpendicular to the
grain.

46
 Wood Characteristics-cont
Stiffness
• Stiffness is a measure of the amount of deflection that occurs when
a load is applied.
– Determined by the cross section shape of the member and the load.
• Amount of allowable deflection is different for each building
member.

47
 Wood Characteristics
Soft Woods
Charact eristi c St re ngt h

He artw oo d
Eas e of Paint Na il De c ay
Ki nd of Woo d Working Holding Holding Resist ance Bending Sti f fn ess

So f t woo ds

Cedar, inland red B A C A C C

Cedar, w estern red A A C A C C

Fir, Douglas C C B B A A

Fir, w hite B B C C B B

Hemlock, w est ern B B B C B A

Larch, w estern C C A B A A

Pine, w est ern w hite A A A B B B

Pine, lodge pole A A B B B B

Pine, Ponde rosa A B B B C C

Pine, South ern yellow C C A B A A

Pine, sugar A A A B C C

Redw ood B A B A B B

Spruce, Engelmann B B C C C C

Spruce, Sitka B B C C B A

Tamarack C B B B B B

48
Structures and Environment Hand Book, MWPS-1
 Wood Characteristics
Hard Woods
Charact eristi c St re ngt h

He artw oo d
Eas e of Paint Na il De c ay
Ki nd of W oo d W orking Holding Holding Resist ance Bending Sti f fn ess

Ha rdwoods

Ash, w hite C C A C A A

Birch, yellow C B A C A A

Cot to nwood B B C C C B

Elm, r ock C C B B A A

Hick ory, t rue C C A C A A

Maple, hard C B A C A A

Oak, red o r w hite C C A A A A

Walnut B C B A A A

Structures and Environment Hand Book, MWPS-1

49
 Selecting Wood For Common Home
and Farm Use
(Fact Sheet F903)

Concrete Forms Good stiffness, easy to nail and cut, resists

bending, warping, or splitting during
installation and reuse
Exposed Platforms and High decay resistance, good stiffness and
Porches strength, good wear and splinter resistance.

Feed Racks and Feed Hardness and freedom from splitting, medium
Bunks decay resistance, ease to work.

Fence Posts High decay resistance and little or no sapwood

for untreated posts, good bending strength,
straightness, and high nail holding.

http://ohioline.osu.edu/for-fact/pdf/0009.pdf

50
 Selecting Wood For Common
Home and Farm Use--cont.
(Fact Sheet F903)

Flooring and Steps Good decay resistance, wear resistant,

and resists warping and shrinking.
Framing, Joists, Rafters, High strength properties in stiffness,
etc. hardness, and bending, good nail, screw,
and glue holding properties, free of warp
and medium weight.
Gates and Fences Good bending strength, decay resistant,
paints well, holds nails, resists
weathering, free of warp and splitting,
lightweight.
House Trim For exterior uses look for woods that are
decay resistant with good painting and
weathering characteristics, is easy to
work and resists warping and shrinking,
good nail holding ability and easy to
work.
51
 Selecting Wood For Common
Home and Farm Use--cont.
(Fact Sheet F903)

Poles and Posts for Pole High stiffness and strength, free of
Barn Construction crook, minimum taper, good nail
holding qualities, decay resistance.
Pressure treat poles and posts in
direct ground contact.
Posts and Beams for Post High stiffness and strength, easy to
and Beam Barn work, moderate weight, and free of
Construction crook.
Roof Boards Good nail or screw holding
properties, easy work, low shrinkage,
high stiffness and free of warp, free of
splits.
Scaffolding High bending strength, high stiffness,
high nail holding, medium weight, and
free of compression failures and
cross grain.
52
 Selecting Wood For Common Home
and Farm Use--cont.
(Fact Sheet F903)

Shelving Good stiffness and free of

warp with good finishing
properties.
Siding Good paintability, good
weathering qualities, decay
resistant and resistant to warp
and shrinkage.
Storage Bins, Tanks, Vats, High decay resistance and low
etc. shrinkage.
Studs and Plates Medium stiffness and strength,
good nail holding, medium free
of warp, and moderately easy
to work.

53
 Pressure Treated Wood

• Pressure treating is a process that forces a chemical

preservative deep into the wood.
• Chemicals
– Until 2003, the preservative most commonly used in residential
pressure-treated lumber was chromated copper arsenate (CCA).
• Now limited to commercial uses.
• Recommended chemicals for residential use:
– Amine copper quat (ACQ)
– Copper azone (CA)

54
Engineered Wood Products
(EWP)

55
 Characteristics

• Engineered wood products (EWP) are made form the same

hardwoods and softwoods as dimensioned lumber.
• Engineered wood, also called composite wood, includes a range
of derivative wood products that are manufactured by binding
together wood strands, fibers, or veneers with adhesives to form
composite materials..
• Similar products can be manufactured from other lignin
containing materials such as straw, stalks or sugar cane
residue.
• Engineered wood products can be used in almost every
situation to replace dimension lumber.
• Sawmill scraps can be used
• These products are engineered to precise design specifications,
which are tested to meet national or international standards.

56
 Advantages of EWP

• Because it is man made, it can be designed to meet application-

specific performance requirements.
• Large panels of EWP can be constructed from small trees.
• Engineered wood products are often stronger and less prone to
humidity induced warping than dimensioned lumber.

57
 Disadvantages of EWP

• More expensive to produce

• The adhesives that are used can be toxic and a pollution
concern.

58
 Common EWP

• Engineered wood products:

– Glulam
– I-Joist
– Structural Composite Lumber
– Orientated strand board
– Plywood
– Rim board
– Siding
– Specialty wood products
– Nonstructural engineered wood products

59
 EWP-Glulam
• Glulam is a stress-rated engineered
wood product comprised of wood
laminations, or "lams," that are bonded
together with strong, waterproof
adhesives.
• Glulam components can be a variety of
species, and individual "lams" are
typically two inches or less in thickness.
• Uses
– Vertical columns
– Horizontal beams
– Curved or arching shapes

60
 EWP-I Joist

• "I"-shaped engineered wood

structural members that offer
strength, versatility and economy for
use in residential and light
commercial applications.
• I-joists are comprised of top and
bottom flanges of various widths
united with webs of various depths.
• The flanges resist common bending
stresses, and the web provides
outstanding shear performance.

61
 EWP- Structural Composite Lumber

• Structural composite lumber (SCL) is a

family of engineered wood products
created by layering dried and graded wood
veneers or flakes with waterproof adhesive
into blocks of material known as billets.
• SCL includes:
– Laminated veneer lumber (LVL)
– Laminated strand lumber (LSL)
– Oriented strand lumber (OSL)
• Cured in a controlled process, SCL is
typically available in various thicknesses
and widths and is easily worked in the field
using conventional construction tools.

62
EWP-Oriented Stand Board
(OSB)
• OSB is manufactured from waterproof
heat-cured adhesives and rectangular
shaped wood strands that are arranged
in cross-oriented layers, similar to
plywood.
• This results in a structural engineered
wood panel that shares many of the
strength and performance
characteristics of plywood.
• Produced in huge, continuous mats,
OSB is a solid panel product of
consistent quality with no laps, gaps or
voids.

63
 Plywood

• “Manufactured from thin sheets

of cross-laminated veneer and
bonded under heat and
pressure with strong adhesives,
plywood has been one of the 1http://www.apawood.org

most ubiquitous building

products for decades.1”
• Most common construction is
– Thin sheets of veneers (piles) three, five or seven piles.
are pealed from a log. • Most common size is 4 ft x 8 ft.
– Each pile is rotated 90 degrees.
– The piles are bonded under
heat and pressure.

64
 Types of Plywood

• Types of plywood are categorized by six (6) grades of the

veneers and four (4) bonding types.
• Six (6) veneer grades (Fig 40-11):
1. A: smooth, paintable. No more than 18 neatly made repairs
2. B: Solid surface. Repairs and tight knots up to 1 inch permitted
3. C: Tight knots to 1-1/2 inches. Discoloration and sanding defects,
limited splits
4. C (Plugged): Improved C veneer.
5. D: Knots and knotholes to 2-1/2 inches. Limited splits allowed.
Limited to interior panels.

65
 Four (4) Plywood-Bonding Types

• Interior Plywood:
– Plywoods for interior use only are made from various hardwood and
softwood species, and can be used only in interior applications such as wall
sheathing, furniture (where exposure to moisture is limited), cabinetry and
the like.
– Interior plywood is available in most grades, as well as a number of
hardwood species such as birch, oak and cherry.
• Exterior Plywood:
– The most common type of plywood, readily available at home centers.
– The glues used in exterior plywoods are much more resistant to moisture
than interior plywoods.
– Once again, nearly all grades are available, with A-C, B-C and CDX the
most common. Numerous hardwood species are also available in exterior
varieties.

66
 Plywood Bonding Types-cont.

• Marine Plywood:
– When moisture resistance is a priority, look into marine plywood.
– This type uses the best adhesives and is manufactured to the
highest standards.
– It also is most commonly graded as A-A, with two top grade faces,
but is limited in the hardwood choices that are practical for use in
marine settings.
• Structural Plywood:
– When the appearance of the face is of lesser concern than the
strength and stability of the material, structural plywood will typically
be the choice.
– The resins used to adhere the plies are designed for extra strength
to avoid separating of the layers.
– Structural plywood is seldom found in a grade higher than C-D. It is
commonly used in concrete forms on construction sites.

67
 Rim Board

• APA Performance Rated Rim Board fills the

space between the sill plate and the bottom
wall plate, or between the top plate and
bottom plate in multi-floor construction.
• In addition to filling the void, Rim Board is
an integral structural component that
transfers both lateral and vertical forces.
• To function properly, the Rim Board must match the depth of framing
members, and conventional solid sawn lumber typically does not match
the new generation of wood I-joists.

68
 EWP-Siding

Engineered siding
A single layer of rack- products are a
resistant panel siding popular alternative
delivers an attractive to wood, vinyl, and
exterior appearance aluminum siding.
while eliminating the
labor and materials
cost of installing
separate structural
sheathing.
Engineered wood and fiber cement have an
authentic hardboard or real-wood appearance
without the maintenance and expense of natural
wood.

69
 EWP - Specialty Wood Products

• Engineered wood can be used in thousands of different

applications.
• Some of these applications are made possible though the
creations and innovations manufacturers
• Engineered wood products with unique characteristics suitable
for building diverse end-use products such as boats, truck
bodies and even upholstered furniture.
• Examples:
– Fiberglass-reinforced-plastic plywood
– Structural Insulated Panels

70
 EWP- Nonstructural
Engineered Wood Products

• Medium density fiberboard (MDF)

• Particle board

71
 Medium Density Fiberboard (MDF)

• MDF is manufactures by breaking

down softwood by rubbing it into
wood fibers.
• The fibers are combined with wax
and resin, formed into panels and
solidified with temperature and
pressure.
• It has higher density than normal
particleboard.

Biggest concern is the use of formaldehyde resins.

Will disintegrate with water.

72
 MDF Characteristics

• Should not be used outdoors because it will swell upon contact

with water.
• Consistent structure
• Easy to machine.
• Can also be used with veneers.
• Good material for cabinets and acoustic enclosures.

73
 Particleboard

• Also called chipboard.

• Manufactured from wood
particles larger than what is used
for MDF.
• Characteristics
 Cheaper, denser and more uniform the dimensioned
lumber and plywood.
 Best used when appearance and strength are less
important than cost.
 May be veneered
 Prone to expansion a discoloration due to moisture.

74
 Roofing & Siding

• Manny different materials can be used, but steel and aluminum

sheets are popular for agricultural buildings.
– Different thicknesses
– Different quality of paint/qalvanizing.
• Roofing materials (Fig 40-15, pg 583)

75
 Siding Materials

• Popular siding materials for Ag buildings:

– Wood
– Steel
– Aluminum
– PVC
– Composite
– Masonry

76
Questions

77