Chapter 3: Dislocations in Crystals

- Theoretical strength

In order to know the strength, we need to know the atomic bonding force

Young’s modulus
energy

force
U

d
d d

Equilibrium position
 b

Assuming stress-displacement curve varies in a sinusoidal manner

(good assumption at very small displacement)
2x
  k sin
b
k   max
At very small shear strain (elastic behavior)

d
  G , or ( )G
d

d 2 2x
  max cos
dx b b
d 2
( ) x 0   max
dx b

For small displacement:   x / a,  d / dx  (d / d )( d / dx)

d 2a
  max
d b

G b G
 max  
2 a 2

 
More accurate analysis showed:  max : 10 to 30
- Structure of crystalline materials

In perfect crystalline structures, all atoms are in the

regular positions.

In real materials, there are always defects in the structures

- 0-dimensional defects: impurity
- 1-dimensional defects: dislocation
- 2-dimensional defects: grain boundary
- 3-dimensional defects: pores
- Dislocation

• In 1934, Taylor, Orowan and Polanyi independently postulated

the dislocation theory
• Description of dislocation

Dislocation line
Burgers vector: b
• Two types of dislocations:
Edge dislocation Screw dislocation

Burgers vector is perpendicular to Burgers vector is parallel to

the dislocation line the dislocation line
    
   
    
     

 
      
    
    
   
   
     edge
    
 

    

    
        
       
    
    
    
     
     
 
     
   
       
     

   
   
mixed screw
- Observation of dislocation
• TEM

Total length: 15 m
Total #: 20
Area: 1.5x1.25 m2
Thickness: 0.2 nm

Dislocation density:
L 15x106 m
  6 6 6
 4 x1013 m2
V (1.5x10 m)(1.25x10 m)(0.2 x10 m)

# 20
  6 6
 1.1x1013 m 2
A (1.5 x10 m)(1.25 x10 m)

• Etching
 • Stress around edge dislocation
Outside the dislocation core
y
Gb y (3 x 2  y 2 ) y=-x y=x
 11  
2 (1  v) ( x 2  y 2 ) 2

Gb y( x 2  y 2 )
 22 
2 (1  v) ( x 2  y 2 ) 2
x
 33  v( 11   22 )

Gb x( x 2  y 2 )
 12   21 
2 (1  v) ( x 2  y 2 ) 2

• Elastic energy around edge dislocation

Gb2 R
For the unit length E ln
4 (1  v) ro
Example: for aluminum,   25GPa   0.35 b  2.9 x10 10 m

b y(3x 2  y 2 )
 11  
2 (1  v) ( x 2  y 2 ) 2

1.8 x109 GPa.m

Along y:  11  
y
- Screw dislocations

   
   
    
    
 
   

  
    

   
Elastic field around screw dislocation

Only shear stresses

 Gb y Gb x
 xz   zx    yz   zy 
2 x 2  y 2 2 x 2  y 2

z x < 0, y = 0
x<0
y<0 x<0
y>0

x = 0, y < 0 S y x = 0, y > 0

x>0 x>0
y<0 y>0
x
x > 0, y = 0
• Elastic energy around screw dislocation

For the unit length

r force   z dr
b Displacement: b

R R
1 1 Gb Gb2 R
E    z bdr   bdr  ln
2 ro 2 ro 2r 4 ro
- Line tension

The total energy of dislocation is a function of its length,

which will keep the dislocation straight in order to reduce
the total energy. The line tension,

T  Gb2

T Gb
 
bR R

R is radius of curvature
- Dislocation loops and nodes

- Dislocation can terminate at a free surface or at a grain

boundary, but never within the crystal. Only
closed loop or networks with branches that terminate at
the surface can be formed within crystal.

- At junction point, at least three dislocation branches that

the sum of the Burgers vectors is zero:
b1 + b2 + b 3 = 0
Dislocation ends at surface
Dislocation loop formed within materials
Dislocation loop formed within materials
- Force on dislocations

• Edge dislocation (unit length)

xy y

F b x

z
xy
The work done by the applied stress when dislocation
is moved outside the slab:
Work done by the stress: xybL
Fx = xyb
Work done by the force: FL

Force perpendicular to dislocation line, but parallel to Burger’s vector

• Screw dislocation (unit length)

zy F zy
b
y

The work done by the applied stress when dislocation

is moved outside the slab:
Work done by the stress: zybL
Fx = zyb
Work done by the force: FL

Force perpendicular to dislocation line and Burger’s vector

- Interactions Between Dislocations

• Screw dislocations
z

Fx = zyb

S y

b
S
x

Dislocations of the same sign repel each other

• Screw dislocations
z

Fx = zyb

b b
S

S y

Dislocations of the same sign repel each other

• Screw dislocations
z

Fx = zyb

b b
S

S y

Dislocations of the same sign repel each other

• Screw dislocations
z

Fx = zyb

S y

b
S
x

Dislocations of the same sign repel each other

• Screw dislocations
z

Fx = zyb

b b b
S S

S y

b b
S S

Dislocations of opposite signs attract each other

• Edge dislocations

Fx = xyb y
y=-x y=x

X  Y : repel
X  Y : attract
• Edge dislocations

Fx = xyb y
y=-x y=x

X  Y : attract
X  Y : repel
- Peierls (Peierls-Nabarro) Stress

w
The force needed to move the dislocation:
2l  2w / b
 p n  e
1 v
Where: w  a /(1  v)
2 l  2a /(1v )b
 p n  e
1 v
- Slip is preferred on closed packed planes
- Slip depends on dislocation width
- Peierls-Nabarro force is sensitive to temperatures
- Dislocation slip

From Peierls-Nabarro eq., the slip prefer on close packed

atomic plane (maximize a), and along closed packed
direction (minimize b).
One slip plane + one slip direction is called a slip system

 = nb
• Crystallography of slip

- For face-centered-cubic FCC structure

Slip systems {111} + <110>:

Four {111} planes, each of them

has 3 <110> directions, so total
12 slip systems.

(111) Plane
[110], [101], and [011]

(111) Plane

(111) Plane

(111) plane
- For body-centered cubic (BCC) structure

{110} plane, <111> direction

Planes: 6, 2 directions in each

Total 12

{112} plan, <111> direction

Planes: 6, 2 directions in each
Total 12

{123} plane, <111> direction

Planes: 12, 2 directions in each

Total 24

Total 48 slip systems

 - For hexagonal close-packed (HCP) structure

In ideal case: c/a = 1.633


{10 11}
c/a < 1.633, prism plane
a <1120> direction
Three planes, one direction
Prism
 plane
in each
c {10 10} Total: 3 systems
a3

a1 c/a > 1.633, basal plane

<1120> direction
One plane, 3 directions in each
a2 Total: 3 systems
Basal plane
{0001} {1011} plane, <1120> direction
Six planes, 1 direction in each
Total: 6 systems
 • Geometry of slip - The cross-section area of slip plane:
Ao
Asp 
cos 

Load, P - The load on slip plane resolved in the

slip direction:
Area Ao Presolved  P cos 
Normal
to slip plane
- So the resolved shear stress acting on
  the slip system:
Slip
 direction P
 RSS  cos  cos 
Ao
- The stress normal to the slip plane:
P
n  cos 2 
Ao

The plastic deformation will occur when the resolved shear stress
reaches a critical value, CRSS, which represents the yield strength
of the single crystal
- Dislocation pile up

b 

 *  n
- Partial Dislocation
• Perfect dislocation
A dislocation, as it moves past along its slip plane, leaves
the atoms in positions equivalent to those they occupied originally.

For perfect dislocation, Burgers vector must be a lattice translation vector

• FCC structures Closed packed plane: (111)
Closed packed direction: <110>
A
Unit cell size,
B a  2 2r
r is the atomic radius

The length of the smallest Burgers vector

Along [110] direction: b  a / 2
ABCABC structure a
b= [110]
2
E  b  a /2
2 2

The length of the next smallest Burgers vector

Along [100] direction: b  a
b= a[100]

E b a
2 2
• Shockley partial dislocations

Length of Burgers vector:

a
along [211] direction
6
a
b= [ 211]
6

E  b  a /6
2 2

a a a
[101]  [211]  [112]
2 6 6
a2 a2 a2
E
2 6 6
a2 a2
> 3
2
- Stacking fault

A A b2 b3
C C
B B
A
C C
B B b1
A A

C C
G (b2b3 )
B B d
A A 2
B
C C
B B d: partial dislocation distance
A A b2, b3: partial dislocation Burgers vectors
: staking fault energy (SFE).
- Dislocation reaction

• Frank’s rule of the conservation of Burgers vector

b2 b3
b1
b 1 + b2 =
b3
b1 b2
b3

b4 b3

b1 + b3 = b2 + b4

b1 b2

• Energy consideration
• Two dislocation on the same (111) plane

a
b1 = 2 [011] b1
a
b2 = 2 [101]
a b2
b3 = 2 [110]

a a a b3
b1 + b 2 = [011] + [101] = [110] = b3
2 2 2

Energy: before a2/2 + a2/2 = a2

after a2/2

a a a
b1 - b2 = [011] - [101] = [112]
2 2 2

Energy: before a2/2 + a2/2 = a2

after 3a2/2

The combination of perfect dislocation leads to perfect dislocation

• Two dislocation on the different planes

On (111) plane On (111) plane

a a
b1 = 2 [011] b4 = 2 [011]
a a
b2 = 2 [101] b5 = 2 [101]
a a
b3 = 2 [110] b6 = 2 [110]

a a a
b1 + b 5 = [011] + [101] = 2 [110]
2 2
a
[101] (111)
2
It is hard for dislocation to
move on (001) plane
70o32’
(111) Lomer lock
a a
[110] [011]
2 2
(001)
- Dislocation Intersection

• b1 b2
b1

b2

b1

The jog
do not impede
the dislocation b2
motion.
• b1 b2

b1

b1
b2

b2
- Dislocation Multiplication – Frank-Read source

b

A B A B A B

  

   
Gb

R
When R = l/2, the dislocation becomes instable
• Crystallography Textures
- The grains within polycrystalline materials have prefer orientation
- Texture extend depends on many conditions: composition, crystal
structure, plastic deformation process, etc.
- Texture is usually not complete.

• Plastic Anisotropy
- In single crystal, the deformation usually is anisotropy since
the plastic deformation can only occur along the slip system
- In polycrystalline materials, since the grain orientations are
uniformly distributed, the deformation is isotropic
- However, in textured materials, the deformation is anisotropic
 Textured Titanium sheet:
(0001) plane // to sheet surface
t l <1120> // to rolling direction
w
Since deformation can occur on
(0001), (1010) and (1011) planes,
a but only in the <1120> direction
no deformation in thickness direction

c l   w  t  0
a3 t  0
a1  l   w

 l  ln( l / lo )   ln( w / wo )
a2
w
For non-perfect texture, strain anisotropy can be identified by R: R 
t
Ro  2 R45  R90
R
4
- Dislocation velocities

Experimental observation
 m
v  A( )
o
o: critical shear stress, if the applied shear stress below which,
not dislocation motion.
: applied shear stress
m: stress exponent
- Cross slip

• For edge dislocation since its bt, the glide is restricted to a plane defined
by the cross product of the Burgers vector and line direction
• For screw dislocation since b//t, it can switch from one slip plane to an
intersecting plane of the same family
- Climb

Occurs at high temperature

 Deformation by twinning (3.2.3)

Before deformation

Twinning
boundary
(plane)
Twinning

“A deformation twin is a region of a crystalline body which had undergone a

homogeneous shape deformation in such a way that the resulting product
structure is identical with that of the parent, but oriented differently.”
- Comparison of deformation in dislocation motion and twining

Dislocation slip Twinning

The atoms move multiples The atoms move fractional

of Burgers vector Amount, depending on the
distance from twin boundary
The relative orientation
remains unchanged The relative orientation
changed
- Geometry of twin formation
Consider a unit sphere
(its radius = 1) Z
Sphere to ellipsoid

Y
O

X
Deformation along Y direction:
The original point of coordinates X, Y, and Z is
translated to X’, Y’ and Z’
 Z
S
S is shear strain

Y
O

X
Since it is along Y direction:
X’ = X X = X’
Z’ = Z Z = Z’
Y’ = Y +SZ Y = Y’ - SZ
The unit sphere:

X 2 Y 2  Z2 1

X '2  Z '2 (Y ' SZ ' ) 2  1

X '2 Y '2 2SZ ' Y '( S 2  1) Z '2  1

Ellipsoid equation
 2 Z
sz/2
s
C C’
k2
A A’  B B’
1 Y
k1 2 O

1 is shear direction
2 is intersection
between k2 and and
paper.
X
• Some planes (such as OA plane) are foreshortened
• Some planes (such as OB plane) are extended
• Only two planes remained undistorted: k1 plane (also
called composition plane) and plane OC (k2)
• All plane located between k1 and OC are foreshortened,
while all planes located between OC and OY are extended
 sz/2
s
C C’ P
k2


Y
k1 2 O

OP is the major axis, which is inclined to OY axis

by an angle 
SZ / 2 S
tan   
Z 2
Since  + 2 = 90
S
cot 2  tan  
2
• Elongation Potential of Twin Deformation

l'
 [1  S tan x]1/ 2
l

S  S2  4
tan x 
2

The elongation from twinning is small, but twinning can

reorient the slip planes so that they might experience a
higher resolved shear stress and thereby contribute more
deformation by slip processes
- Stress Requirements for Twinning

Nucleation of a twin requires higher stress than propagate

a preexistent twin.

Nucleation of a twin is associated with a sudden load drop


- Twinning in HCP Crystals

- Twinning is more often observed in HCP structures since

they have less slip systems

- One common twinning is that involves {1012} planes

and <1011> direction

c
3a


2
(10 12)
a3 c
 k2 k1
(1 012)
a1

<1011>
a2
 When c/a > 3 , e.g. Zinc (c/a = 1.856)
3a / 2 3a 1.732
tan      0.933
c/2 c 1.856

  43o

3  k2
(1010)

1  1 k1

2 3a

2
c
k2 k1
When c/a < 3 , e.g. Berylium (c/a = 1.568)
c/2 c 1.568
tan      0.905
3a / 2 3a 1.732

  42o

k2
(0001)

 1 k1

3a

k2 2 c
k1
- Twinning in BCC and FCC Crystals
• BCC structure

Twinning occurs on {112} plane

and [111] direction; but not [111]

• FCC structure

Need cryogenic temperature and

very high strain rates