Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Sustainable Energy
Sustainable Energy
Sustainable Energy
Unit 2
Conventional Energy Sources
Conventional energy resources
Wood 1 0.6 0.4 0.3 0.25 0.27 0.28 0.15 0.48 3.33
Charcoal 1.66 1 0.66 0.5 0.42 0.45 0.47 0.25 0.8 5.55
Coal 2.5 1.5 1 0.75 0.63 0.68 0.71 0.37 1.2 8.33
Petrol 3.91 2.35 1.56 1.17 1 1.06 1.11 0.58 1.88 13.05
Diesel
3.66 2.2 1.46 1.1 0.93 1 1.04 0.55 1.76 12.22
Furnace Oil 3.5 2.1 1.4 1.05 0.89 0.95 1 0.52 1.68 11.66
Biogas 2.08 1.25 0.83 0.67 0.53 0.56 0.59 0.31 1 6.94
Electricity 0.3 0.18 0.12 0.09 0.07 0.081 0.085 0.04 0.14 1
Demand comparison based on calorific value
(Actual efficiency)
Fuel Wood Char Coal Kerosene Petrol Diesel Furnace LPG Biogas Electricity
(kg) Coal (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) Oil (kg) m3 Unit
(kg) (kg)
Wood
1 0.36 0.16 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.03 0.11 0.44
(12%)
Charcoal
2.77 1 0.44 0.2 0.17 0.18 0.19 0.1 0.32 1.23
(20%)
Coal
6.25 2.25 1 0.45 0.38 0.40 0.42 0.22 0.72 2.77
(30%)
Kerosene
13.88 5 2.22 1 0.85 0.90 0.95 0.5 1.6 6.17
(50%)
Petrol
16.31 5.87 2.61 1.17 1 1.06 1.11 0.58 1.88 7.25
(50%)
Diesel
15.27 5.5 2.44 1.11 0.93 1 1.04 0.55 1.76 6.79
(50%)
Furnace Oil
14.58 5.25 2.33 1.05 0.89 0.95 1 0.52 1.68 6.48
(50%)
LPG (50%) 27.77 10 4.44 2 1.70 1.81 1.90 1 3.2 12.34
Biogas (50%) 8.68 3.12 1.38 0.62 0.53 0.56 0.59 0.31 1 3.85
Electricity
2.25 0.81 0.36 0.16 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.08 0.25 1
(90%)
Non-Conventional Energy
Sources
Renewable Energy Sources
• Source for power generation is not depleted
• Wider application and utilization of nature
• Mostly the energy is available at free of cost
• Capital cost for power generation is high
– Solar energy
– Bio energy
– Wind energy
– Tidal energy
Resources and Technologies of
Renewable Energy
Solar
Wind
Biomass
Small Hydro
Waste to Energy: Municipal Solid / Liquid
Waste, Industrial Waste
Bio Diesel
OTEC (Ocean Thermal Energy)
Wave Energy
Geo-thermal energy
Fuel Cell Technologies
Advantages of Renewable Energy
Technologies
16. Solar Water Heating - Collector Area 0.03 Mln. sq.m. 2.60 Mln. sq.m.
17. Solar Cookers 6.37 lakh
Coal is the
remains of
prehistoric trees.
Solar Photovoltaic
• This technology facilitates in converting the
solar energy into electrical energy and is
being used for applications like
– Lighting
Estimated potential :
Electric Utilities
Fuel Cells Wind Energy
Solar Bio
Energy Energy
What is an alternative source of
energy?
• An energy source that
can be used instead
of fossil fuels.
• It is usually a
renewable source of
energy that could be
used should fossil
fuels run out.
Why is there a need for alternative
sources of energy?
• The graph that you completed last time
shows just how much we rely on fossil
fuels
• 90 per cent of the worlds energy supply’s
come from fossil fuels
• Fossil fuels are convenient and relatively
cheap – a litre of petrol in 1998 would
have been 20p if there was no tax added!
How much longer can we
depend on fossil fuels?
• Because they are fossil fuels they DO
have a life expectancy
• “Oil has 40 – 50 years left”
• In 1960 they said this too! – what has
happened is that we have found new
reserves of oil and new technology has
made the oil we use last longer
• Burning fossil fuels has increased atmospheric
pollution.
• Vehicle exhausts contribute to acid rain more so
than power stations burning coal.
• The carbon stored in fossil fuels is released as
carbon dioxide when they are burnt – this leads
to the green house effect and global warming
• Don’t get this confused with the hole in the
ozone layer – this was caused by CFC’s
• Coal has the longest life expectancy
• Environmentalists dislike the burning of
this fossil fuel the most as it gives off the
most CO2
• Unless cheap alternatives to burning coal
are found there is likely to be an increase
in its use – especially from Asia which has
a lot!
So what are the alternative
energy sources to fossil fuels?
• Once upon a time – nuclear power was seen as the
answer. Huge amounts of power could be produced
from a small amount of uranium
• However, it was not well known that it produced
radioactive waste
• The waste is dangerous to health and life for hundreds of
years
• There is no secure place for storage.
• Public confidence has also been shattered by the
explosion at Chernobyl in 1986
Bio-Fuels
The
process
is currently
very energy
expensive
and very
inefficient
……....but
someday
soon…..…
Advantages of using natural
sources of energy
• They are inexhaustible – they will always
be available – they are renewable
• They are clean and will not damage the
Earth
• There are several types – so one or more
of them is present in each country
• Most natural sources can be used on a
small scale and serve local needs
therefore cutting costs of transmitting the
energy
Biomass Energy :
• All non-fossil organic materials that have an
intrinsic chemical energy content.
• Include: all water and land-based vegetation and
trees, also virgin biomass, and all waste (MSW),
municipal bio-solids (sewage) and animal
wastes (manures), forestry and agricultural
residues, and certain types of industrial wastes.
• Biomass is renewable because it only takes a
short period of time to replace it unlike fossil
fuels.
Ocean Thermal Energy
Conversion (OTEC)
OCEAN ENERGY
• Ocean covers >70% Earth’s surface.
• Largest natural collector and storage
system.
• Largest renewable energy resource.
OTEC
• The ocean serves as a big storehouse of solar
energy.
• In the tropical regions of the earth, the surface of the
water is heated by the sun, is at an average
temperature of around 25ºC and at depths more than
100m, it is about 5ºC.
• The average difference in temperature of around
20ºC may be used in running a thermodynamic cycle
to yield mechanical power, which in turn could be
used to generate electrical power.
• Because of the very low temperatures involved,
secondary working fluids such as Ammonia,
Propane, R-12, having low boiling point are
proposed to be used.
OTEC
BOILER
WARM SURFACE
T WATER IN
G
WORKING
FLUID
TO OCEAN
CONDENSER
COLD WATER
FROM OCEAN
DEPTH IN
OTEC (Ocean Thermal Energy
Conversion)
OTEC utilizes T between warm shallow
and cold deep ocean waters to run a heat
engine.
OTEC Technology – Open cycle
OTEC plant
OTEC Technology – Closed cycle
OTEC plant
ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN
PARAMETERS
• Temperature & salinity vs depth
• Deep water wave characteristics
• Meteorological conditions
• Extreme water level
• Shallow water condition
• Deep ocean nutrient content
Advantages
• Collection and storage of energy is done by nature
and hence costs nothing.
• This phenomenon of heating up of ocean water
occurs through out the year and so continuous
power supply may be assured.
• 100 MW OTEC plant prevents CO2 emission of
140,000 tonnes/year.
Disadvantages
• The very small temperature difference necessarily
means thermo-dynamic efficiency of the order of 2 to
3%.
• The low level of efficiency in turn, call for handling
large quantities of working fluid to obtain reasonable
amount of power.
• The heat exchange boilers and condensers-become
necessarily big and capital cost goes up.
• On-shore installations require long and big pipings,
which add up to the cost. The proposal is therefore
in favor of offshore installations using floating
platforms.
• The material suggested for heat exchangers are
titanium or alloy of copper and nickel, which are
resistant to corrosion. But then, the cost adds up.
Applications
Resource Variable
MOON’S ORBIT
but Predictable
Tidal Power Generation
Tides
• When the water is above the mean sea level it is
called flood tide.
• When the water is below the mean sea level it is
called ebb tide.
• At the time of high tide, water is at a high level and
can be let into a basin to be stored at a high level
there. The same water can be let back into the sea
during the low tide through the turbines, thus
producing power
• Since the basin water level is high and seawater is
low, there is a differential head comparable to the
tidal range, which can be utilized for the running of
the turbines
Turning Tides into Usable Energy
• Ebb generating system
• A dam (barrage) is built
across the mouth of an
estuary.
• Sluice gates allow
incoming tides to fill the
basin.
• As the tide ebbs, the
water is forced through
a turbine system to
generate electricity.
Types of Turbines
Bulb turbine used at La Rance tidal plant on the Brittany coast in France
TIDAL ENERGY
TIDAL ENERGY
ADVANTAGES:
• Renewable
• Abundant (estimated that it could produce 16% of
worlds energy.)
• Pollution free (except during construction)
• Relatively consistent (unlike wind that is
inconsistent and is highly concentrated in certain
areas depending on the topography.)
• Water is a free resource
• Presents no difficulty to migrating aquatic animals
(avoidable)
TIDAL ENERGY
DISADVANTAGES:
Expensive parts
Disadvantages
• Tidal power plants can be developed only if natural
sites available on the bay
• As the sites are available on the bays, which are
always far away from load centers, the power
generated has to be transmitted to long distances.
This increases the transmission cost and
transmission losses
• The supply of power is not continuous as it depends
upon the timing of tides
• The navigation is obstructed
• Utilization of tidal energy on small scale is not
economical
Disadvantages
• Disturbance/Destruction to marine life (effect wave
climate that effects shallow/shore plant life)
• Expensive to construct (estimated 1.2 billion
dollars.)
• Reliability (have not been around long so we do not
know long-term reliability is.)
• Recreational costs (visual impact, sport fishing,
swimming, etc.)
• Cost of Maintenance Higher
• Power transmission from offshore facilities harder
• Power quality (waves fluctuation)
TIDAL ENERGY
* Good Alternative Energy Resource for Future
Geothermal Energy
Sources of Earth’s Internal Energy
GENERATOR
STEAM TURBINE
CONDENSER
PIPES
(STEAM WELL) PUMP
15,000m
M
T EA
S
UND
RO
E RG
D
O UN RAGE
T STO
UNDER GROUND
STEAM STORAGE
Working
Steam Well : Pipes are embedded at places of fresh
volcanic action called steam wells, where the molten
internal mass of earth vents to the atmosphere with
very high temperatures.
By sending water through embedded pipes, steam is
raised from the underground steam storage wells to
the ground level
Separator: The steam is then passed through the
separator where most of the dirt and sand carried by
the steam are removed
Turbine: The steam from the separator is passed
through steam drum and is used to run the turbine,
which in turn drives the generator
The exhaust steam from the turbine is condensed
The condensate is pumped into the earth to absorb
the ground heat again to get converted into steam
ADVANTAGES OF USING
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
– Reliable
– Stimulates Economy
Advantages
Energy is continuously available and is more dependable
It has a good potential among the non-conventional energy
sources
Capital and generation cost is the lowest compared to nuclear
and coal plants
No solid pollutants and no radiation fall out Useful minerals, such
as zinc and silica, can be extracted from underground water.
Geothermal energy is “homegrown”.This will create jobs, a better
global trading position and less reliance on oil producing
countries.
Geothermal plants can be online 100% - 90% of the time. Coal
plants can only be online 75% of the time and nuclear plants can
only be online 65% of the time.
Geothermal electric plants production is 13.380 g of Carbon
dioxide per kWh, whereas the CO2 emissions are 453 g/kWh for
natural gas, 906g g/kWh for oil and 1042 g/kWh for coal.
Geothermal plants do not require a lot of land, 400m2 can
produce a gigawatt of energy over 30 years.
Challenges
Power plants that do not inject the cooled water back into the ground
can release H2S, the “rotten eggs” gas. This gas can cause
problems if large quantities escape because inhaling too much is
fatal.
One well “blew its top” 10 years after it was built, and this threw
hundreds of tons of rock, mud and steam into the atmosphere.
-- exerts a force
(creates structure)
-- provides insulation
-- stores energy
(released in flare)
MHD
• MHD power generation is a new system of electric power
generation, which is said to be of high efficiency and low
pollution.
• In advanced countries MHD generators are widely used
but in developing countries like India it is still under
construction. This construction work is in progress at
Trichy in Tamilnadu under joint effort of BARC (Bhabha
Atomic Research Centre), BHEL, Associated Cement
Corporation (ACC) and Russian technologies.
• As its name implies, Magneto hydro dynamics (MHD) is
concerned with the flow of a conducting fluid in the
presence of magnetic and electric field.
• The fluid may be gas at elevated temperature or liquid
metal like sodium or potassium.
• An MHD generator is a device for converting heat energy
of a fuel directly into electrical energy without a
conventional electric generator
MHD
• MHD power generation uses the interaction of
an electrically conducting fluid with a magnetic
field to convert part of the energy of the fluid
directly into electricity.
• MHD - the study of the interaction between a
magnetic field and a plasma, treated as a
continuous medium.
• Converts thermal or kinetic energy into
electricity.
MHD
COMBUSTION
NOZZLE
CHAMBER
ELECTRODES
D.C
GAS FLOW
LOAD
GENERATOR
CHANNEL
Principles of MHD Power Generation
• The principle of MHD generation is simply that
discovered by Faraday: When an electric conductor
moves across a magnetic field a voltage is induced
in it which produces an electric current.
• This is the principle of the conventional generator
also, where a gaseous conductor, an ionized gas,
replaces the conductors. If such a gas is passed at a
high velocity through a powerful magnetic field, a
current is generated and can extracted by placing
electrodes in a suitable position in the stream. This
arrangement as illustrated in the Fig provides DC
power directly.
Conversion Efficiency
• MHD generator alone: 10-20%
• Friction
Cold electrode
(Collector)
Hot electrode
or
(Emitter)
or Anode
Cathode
Evacuated
vessel
Electrons
External
DC Load
Emitter
Collector
Electron
Load Current
Thermionic Energy Conversion system
• System consists of two electrodes held in a
container filled with ionized cesium vapour.
Heating one electrode, electrons are emitted,
that travel to the opposite, colder electrode. The
hotter electrode (or emitter) emits electrons (i.e.
negative charges) and so acquires a positive
charge, whereas the colder electrode (or
collector) collects electrons and becomes
negatively charged.
• Space charge
Types of TEC
• Closed space diode
• Caesium diode
• TECs with auxiliary discharge
Thermionic Energy Conversion system
Some applications
•Electric vehicles
•Topping cycle
•Cogeneration
•Solar cell
•Domestic heating and electricity supply
•In-pile system
SUMMARY
Material-1
Heat
Hot junction Cold junction
T2 T1
Hea
t
Material-2
V
Seebeck Effect
• In 1821, Thomas Seebeck found that an electric
current would flow continuously in a closed circuit
made up of two dissimilar metals, if the junctions of
the metals were maintained at two different
temperatures.
S= dV / dT;
S is the Seebeck Coefficient with units of Volts per Kelvin
S is positive when the direction of electric current is same
as the direction of thermal current
Thermoelectric Energy Conversion
• If a temperature difference is maintained
between these two junctions, an electric current
will flow round the loop. The magnitude of the
current will depend on both the materials used
and the temperature difference of the junction
(ΔT = T2 -T1). If the circuit is broken an open
circuit voltage ‘V’ appears across the thermals
of the break as shown in figure.
• The thermo emf, V produced by the device is
given by
V= S1-2ΔT
S1-2 - Seebeck Coefficient.
Thermoelectric Power Generation
• Oil crises
• Global warming
• A fuel cell is a controlled chemical and electrical energy conversion
device which continuously converts chemical energy to electrical
energy.
• In a hydrogen, oxygen fuel cell electrochemical reaction involves the
process of ionisation in which atoms or molecules looses or gains
one or more electron.
• Loosing one electron gives the atom overall positive charge and
gaining an electron gives negative charge.
• Water can be ionised into hydroxyl ion(-) and hydrogen ion(+) when
two dissimilar metal electrodes like sodium, zinc, cadmium is placed
in a solution containing ions. Voltage is developed between
positively charged electrode.
• In fuel cell the reactants are continuously fed to the cell and
electrically it is extracted.
• Therefore the fuel cell is like a storage battery but with regular
supply of fuel and oxygen.
Fuel Cell
Anode Cathode
e
-
H+
H2 O2
H2 2H+ + 2e- ½ O2 + 2H+ + 2e- H2O
Electrolyte
Overall: H2 + ½ O2 H2O
Fuel Cell Components
• Components catalyst
electrodes
– Electrolyte (Membrane)
• Transport ions
• Block electrons, gases
– Electrodes
• Catalyze reactions
• Transport
– Ions, electrons,
gases
sealant
• May be a composite
electrolyte
– (electro)Catalyst +
– Conductors + Membrane-Electrode
– Pore former Assembly (MEA)
Fuel Cells
• Some of the fuel cells are hydrogen, oxygen(H2O2),
hydrazine (N2H4O2), Carbon/coal(C,O2),, methane (CH4,O2).
• Hydrogen, oxygen (Hydroxy) fuel cells, are efficient and
highly developed.
• In the hydrox cell, catalyst is embedded in Nickel
electrode.The electrolyte is typically 30% KOH because of
its high electrical conductivity and it is less corrosive
than acids.
• Cell reactions are,
Anode reaction : 2H2 4H+ + 4e-
Cathode reaction : 2H2 + O2 2H2O (vapour) + Energy
• H2 is fed to one electrode and is absorbed. It gives
off free electrons and also reacts with hydroxyl ions
of the electrolyte to form water.The free electrons
travel towards oxygen electrode through the external
circuit.
• The two electrons at the external circuit combine
with one molecule of water to form 2OH- ions.
• These OH- ions migrate towards H2 electrode and are
consumed there.
• The electrolyte remains invariant. The cell operates
at or slightly above atmospheric pressure and at
temperature of about 90ºC.These types of cells are
called low temperature cells. In high-pressure cells
pressure is upto about 45 atmosphere and
temperature is upto 300ºC.
• A single hydrogen, oxygen fuel cell can produce an
emf of 1.23 Volt at atmospheric pressure and at
25ºC.By connecting number of cells, it is possible to
create useful potential of 100 to 1000 volts and
power levels of 1 kW to nearly 100MW.
• The overall efficiency of the cell is the ratio of the
power generated and the heating value of the
hydrogen consumed.
Comparison between different types of fuel cells
Aspects PEMFC AFC PAFC MCFC SOFC
Type of H+ ions (With OH- ions H+ ions (H3PO4 CO32- ions (Typically O2- ions (Stabilized
electrolyte anion bound in (Typically solutions) molten LiK2CO3 ceramic matrix with
polymer aqueous KOH eutectics) free oxide ions)
membrane) solutions)
Typical Plastic, metal Plastic, metal Carbon, porous High temperature Ceramic, High
construction or carbon ceramics metals, porous temperature metals
ceramic
Internal No No No Yes, Good Yes, Good
Reforming Temperature match Temperature match
Distributed 25 - 35 32 - 40 35 - 45 40 - 50 45 - 55
Generation
system level
(η %)
Power Generation/Conversion
Fuel Cell Car
Hydrogen as a future energy
source
Reasons for change
Energy
Environment
shortage
Energy
security
Technical Support
Steering Group
Energy Management
Which factors does Energy Management deal with?
•People
•Building
•Energy type used
•Installed equipment
•External factors
•Legislation – ‘One will have to
comply’
Energy Conservation
Energy Conservation
• In economic terms, energy is termed as a demand-
derived good.That is, energy is an intermediate good
whose demand depends on the demand of the final
(end-use) goods and services it produces.
• Energy conservation can be defined as the substitution
of energy with capital labour or material and time.
• Energy conservation can also be defined as the
substitution of this generation’s energy with that of future
generations, known as “intertemporal substitution”
(substitution of this generation energy with that of future
generations).
• Energy conservation invokes avoiding wastage of energy
and adopting methods to save energy without affecting
the productivity and comforts of machine / labour.
The two points to be considered before demanding more
conservation efforts are:
• Whether the depletion of the given resource can be offset
by new exploration and findings. That is, is the resource
really limited, and hard to replace in a short time.
• The intertemporal welfare of consuming this type of
energy. That is, is the marginal utility of consuming this
energy in this generation larger than the utility of
consuming it in the next generation.
Principles of Energy Conservation
• Meeting the increasing demand only through increases in supply may lead to:
– Reduced energy security due to volatility in availability and prices of
imported fuels
– Adverse environmental impacts
– Strain on balance of payments
....INVOLVES A COMBINATION OF
- MANAGERIAL
&
- TECHNICAL/TECHNOLOGICAL
- SKILLS/KNOWLEDGE
GLOBAL/NATIONAL BENEFITS
• immediate results
• lower power plant capacity
• reduced load shedding
• reduced energy imports
• lower foreign exchange needs
• use of local equipment
• job creation
• lower inflation
• reduced emissions/pollution
• conservation of scarce/limited resources
GLOBAL ISSUES
• ENERGY USE
• ENVIRONMENTAL DAMAGE
• NUCLEAR SAFETY/HEALTH
... PLANNING
... LEADING
... ORGANISING
... CONTROLLING
THE TOTAL ENERGY MANAGEMENT
PROCESS
Awareness of
Potential Savings
Implement No-Cost/
Low-Cost Measures
Feasibility Studies
-Capital Intensive Projects
Training Monitor
Implement
Higher-Cost
Measures
Conducting An Energy Audit
OUTLINE
- light fixtures
- lamp types, sizes and numbers
- levels of illumination
- uses of task lighting
Responsibilities and Duties of Energy Auditor
40 8 400 215
75 14 900 235
Cost = 115.2 Rs. 2.20 = Rs. 253.44 Cost = 23.0 Rs. 2.20 = Rs. 50.60
Sources of light:
• Light source can be classified as
• Natural light – Varies constantly with changing
metrological conditions, time of the day, seasons and
specific location on earth
– Sunlight – light received directly from the sun
– Skylight – scattered light received from other
luminous parts of the sky
Artificial light
• Flame based – they evolved from firelight, oil
lamps, modern kerosene, gas lamps, candles
etc.,
• Electrical light – incandescent and discharge
lamps
Light and Energy
– A source of light needs energy, either electrical or
heat
– Input to lighting – for the flame based systems it is
necessary to know the net heating value and rate of
consumption of the fuels used or for electrical lighting
systems, the power ratings of the lamps
– Output energy – it is also possible to measure the
quantity of energy that is contained in the output of
lighting system, i.e., in the light
– It is possible to measure how the emitted energy of a
100W incandescent lamp is distributed over the
radiation spectrum
– These measurements take the spectral sensitivity of
the eye in to account
- Total light energy emitted by a 100W bulb is 1700
lumen, which is only a fraction of the 10W energy in the
visible range. This quantity is called by definition the
luminous flux
UV Visible Infrared
Energy
0 0.4 0.8 1 2 3 4
b
Epoint
Colour and Colorimetry
• A distinction is made between the colour temperature of
a light source when you look at the light itself and the
colour rendering that it gives to surface when it shines
onto them
• The colour-rendering index expresses how a light source
compares with natural light or daylight in its ability to
make objects appear to their natural colours. Put more
precisely, it is a measure of the degree to which the
colour of surfaces illuminated by a given light source
confirm to those of the same surfaces under a reference
light. Some form of daylight is taken as the reference
source
• Perfect agreement between the source being judged and
the reference source is given a value of 100
CIE colour rendering % Typical applications Example of lamps
90 (Good) Accurate colour matching Incandescent lamps
80-90 (Good) Accurate colour judgment Fluorescent tubes (with
or good colour rendering triphosphor fluorescent
for reasons of appearance coating)
60-80 (Medium) Moderate colour Standard Fluorescent
rendering tubes
40-60 (Medium) Little significant colour High-Pressure mercury
rendering, but marked lamps
distortions of colours
unacceptable
20-40(Poor) Colour rendering not Low-Pressure sodium
important and colour lamps.
distortion acceptable
Illuminance for different purposes
W lm lm/W