M - I U - 1 C P: Anufacturing Processes NIT Asting Rocesses

MANUFACTURING PROCESSES-I
UNIT-1
CASTING PROCESSES
TYPES OF MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
Manufacturing
Processes
Sheet Polymer
Deformation Casting Metal Processes Machining Finishing Assembly
Extrusion Centrifugal Bending Blow molding Boring Anodizing Automated

Forging Die casting Blanking Casting Drilling Honing Bonding
Rolling Investment Drawing Compression molding Facing Painting Brazing
Bar drawing Permanent mold Punching Extrusion Grinding Plating Manual
Wire drawing Sand casting Shearing Injection Molding Milling Polishing Riveting
Spinning Thermoforming Planing Soldering
Transfer molding Turning Welding
Sawing
ECM, EDM
CASTING SINCE ABOUT 4000 BC…
Ancient Greece; bronze

statue casting circa 450BC
Iron works in early Europe,
e.g. cast iron cannons from
England circa 1543
CASTING PROPERTIES
 Foundry is a process of producing metal castings.
 Casting is an operation of shaping metal by pouring it
in the liquid state into a mold followed by solidification.
 Casting is a process in which molten metal flows into a mold

where it solidifies in the shape of the mold cavity. The part
produced is also called casting.
 In some cases casting is the only method of shaping a

metal or alloy: when the alloy is not malleable and
therefore it’s plastic deformation is not possible or when
a large detail of complex shape is to be produced.
Applications
Advantages
 Big parts:
 Complex shapes
 engine blocks and heads for
 Net-shape ability automotive vehicles,
 Very large parts  wood burning stoves,
 Variety of metals  machine frames,
 Mass production  railway wheels, pipes, church
bells,
 big statues, and pump
Disadvantages housings
 Poor accuracy  Small parts:
 Poor surface  dental crowns,
 Internal defects  jewelry,
 Mechanical properties  small statues, and
 frying pans
 Environmental impact
 Cameras
SAND CASTING
 Sand casting, the most widely used casting process,

utilizes expendable sand molds to form complex metal
parts that can be made of nearly any alloy.
 - has a low production rate.
 The sand casting process involves the use of a furnace,

metal, pattern, and sand mold.
Steps in Sand Casting
1
5 3
4
10
6 7 8 9
WHAT IS BASIC REQUIREMENT FOR SAND
CASTING PROCESS…?
 1. Pattern.
 2. Core
 3. Gating system
 4. Sand casting
 5. Mold
I. PATTERN
I. PATTERN
It is the replica of the final object to be made.
Pattern is the solid form that is used to make mold cavity.
The quality of the castings produced depends on the design of the

pattern, its material and construction.
 One major requirement is that patterns (and therefore the mold
cavity) must be oversized
 (i) to account for shrinkage in cooling and solidification, and
 (ii) to provide enough metal for the subsequence machining

operation(s).
SOLIDIFICATION AND COOLING
SHRINKAGE
FACTORS EFFECTING SELECTION OF PATTERN MATERIAL
1. Number of castings to be produced.

Metal pattern----- large in number.
2. Type of mold material used.
3. Kind of molding process.
4. Method of molding (hand or machine).
5. Degree of dimensional accuracy and surface finish
required.
6. Minimum thickness required.
7. Shape, complexity and size of casting.
8. Cost of pattern and chances of repeat orders of the
pattern
COMMON PATTERN MATERIALS
 The common materials used for making patterns are wood,

metal, plastic, plaster, wax or mercury.
Pattern properties are

 Easily worked, shaped and joined
 Light in weight
 Strong, hard, durable etc
 Resistance to wear and abrasion, chemical reaction
 Dimensionally stable
 Available at low cast
Pattern Materials
 Wood-pine (softwood),
or mahogany (hardwood),
 Metals and alloys
 Plaster of Paris
 Plastic and rubber
 Wax and resins
1. WOOD- SHISHAM, KAIL, DEODAR, TEAK AND
MAHOGANY.
Advantages of wooden patterns

1 Wood can be easily worked.
2 It is light in weight.
3 It is easily available.
4 It is very cheap.
5 It is easy to join.
6 It is easy to obtain good surface finish.
7 Wooden laminated patterns are strong.
8 It can be easily repaired.
Disadvantages
1 It is susceptible to moisture.
2 It tends to warp.
3 It wears out quickly due to sand abrasion.
4 It is weaker than metallic patterns.
2. METAL- CAST IRON, BRASS AND BRONZES AND
ALUMINUM ALLOYS.
 i). Cast Iron

Advantages
 1. It is cheap
 2. It is easy to file and fit
 3. It is strong
 4. It has good resistance against sand abrasion
 5. Good surface finish
Disadvantages
 1 It is heavy
 2 It is brittle and hence it can be easily broken
 3 It may rust
ii). Brasses and Bronzes
Advantages
 1. Better surface finish than cast iron.
 2. Very thin sections can be easily casted.
Disadvantages
 1. It is costly
 2. It is heavier than cast iron.
iii). Aluminum Alloys
Advantages
 1. Aluminum alloys pattern does not rust.
 2. They are easy to cast.
 3. They are light in weight.
 4. They can be easily machined.
Disadvantages
 1. They can be damaged by sharp edges.
 2. They are softer than brass and cast iron.
 3. Their storing and transportation needs proper care.
 Iv). White Metal (Alloy of Antimony, Copper
and Lead)
 Advantages
 1. It is best material for lining and stripping plates.
 2. It has low melting point around 260°C
 3. It can be cast into narrow cavities.
 Disadvantages
 1. It is too soft.
 2. Its storing and transportation needs proper care
 3. It wears away by sand or sharp edges.
3. Plastic
 Advantages
 lighter, stronger, moisture and wear resistant, non sticky to
molding sand, durable and they are not affected by the
moisture of the molding sand.
 Moreover they impart very smooth surface finish on the
pattern surface.
Disadvantages
 These materials are somewhat fragile, less resistant to
sudden loading and their section may need metal
reinforcement.
 The plastics used for this purpose are thermosetting

resins.
 Phenolic resin plastics are commonly used.
4. Plaster
 The main advantages of plaster are that it has
high compressive strength and is of high
expansion setting type which compensate for the
shrinkage allowance of the casting metal.
 It is also preferred for production of small size
intricate castings and making core boxes.
 preferable for producing highly intricate casting.

5. Wax
 The commonly used waxes are paraffin wax,

shellac wax, bees-wax, cerasin wax, and micro-
crystalline wax.
 used in the process of investment casting where

accuracy is linked with intricacy of the cast
object.
TYPES OF PATTERN
1. One piece or solid pattern

2. Two piece or split pattern
3. Cope and drag pattern
4. Three-piece or multi- piece pattern
5. Loose piece pattern
6. Match plate pattern
7. Follow board pattern
8. Gated pattern
9. Sweep pattern
10. Skeleton pattern
11. Segmental or part pattern
1. Loose pattern:
 Loose pattern are patterns which are not connected to
other patterns or mounted on a plate. Loose patterns
may be further classified into:
 1. Solid or Single piece pattern
 2. Self core pattern
 3. Split patterns
 4. Loose piece pattern

1.Solid Pattern/single piece pattern
 Solid pattern is made of single piece without joints,
partings lines or loose pieces. It is the simplest form
of the pattern.
 It is an easy pattern to manufacture, but
determining the parting line between cope and drag
is more difficult for the foundry worker.
2. Self core patterns:
 Self core type solid patterns are patterns having a
hollow portion with straight draft which is used for
producing its own core during moulding process itself.
 This type of pattern eliminates the need for core box.
3. Split Pattern:
 The split pattern is comprised of two separate parts
that when put together will represent the geometry of
the casting.
 Split pattern is made in two pieces which are joined
at the parting line by means of dowel pins.
 The splitting at the parting line is done to facilitate
the withdrawal of the pattern.
4. Match Plate Pattern:
 -- high production.
 In the match plate pattern, however, each of the parts

are mounted on a plate.
 The plates come together to assemble the pattern for
the casting process.
 - more proficient and makes alignment of the pattern
in the mold quick and accurate.
5. Cope and Drag Pattern:
 Each of the two halves are mounted on a separate
plate for easy alignment of the pattern and mold.
 The cope and drag pattern enables the cope section of
the mold, and the drag section of the mold to be
created separately and latter assembled before the
pouring of the casting.
6. Shell patterns:
 --used for piping work or for producing drainage fittings.
 This pattern consists of a thin cylindrical or curved metal

piece parted along the center line.
 The two halves of the pattern are held in alignment by
dowels.
6. Gated patterns:
 Gated patterns are number of loose patterns connected with
a gating system.
 They are molded like a single pattern and withdrawn from
the mould in one piece thus reducing moulding time.
 Gated patterns are useful when a number of small castings
are to be produced
Eg. Investment casting

7. Sweep pattern
 Sweep patterns are used for forming large circular
moulds of symmetric kind by revolving a sweep
attached to a spindle.
 Actually a sweep is a template of wood or metal and
is attached to the spindle at one edge and the other
edge has a contour depending upon the desired shape
of the mould.
 The pivot end is attached to a stake of metal in the
center of the mould.
8. Skeleton pattern
 When only a small number of large and heavy castings are
to be made, it is not economical to make a solid pattern.
 In such cases, however, a skeleton pattern may be used.
 This is a ribbed construction of wood which forms an
outline of the pattern to be made.
 This frame work is filled with loam sand and rammed.
 The surplus sand is removed by stickle board.
 For round shapes, the pattern is made in two halves which
are joined with glue or by means of screws etc.
9. Three-piece or multi-piece pattern
 Some patterns are of complicated kind in shape
and hence can not be made in one or two pieces
because of difficulty in withdrawing the pattern.
 Therefore these patterns are made in either three
pieces or in multi-pieces.
 Multi molding flasks are needed to make mold
from these patterns.
10. Segmental pattern
 Patterns of this type are generally used for circular
castings, for example wheel rim, gear blank etc.
 Such patterns are sections of a pattern so arranged as
to form a complete mould by being moved to form each
section of the mould.
 The movement of segmental pattern is guided by the
use of a central pivot.
11. Follow board pattern
 When the use of solid or split patterns becomes
difficult, a contour corresponding to the exact
shape of one half of the pattern is made in a
wooden board, which is called a follow board and
it acts as a molding board for the first molding
operation
PATTERN ALLOWANCES
 The size of a pattern is never kept the same as that of

the desired casting because of the fact that during
cooling the casting is subjected to various effects and
hence to compensate for these effects, corresponding
allowances are given in the pattern.
 These various allowances given to pattern can be
enumerated as,
 allowance for shrinkage,
 allowance for machining,
 allowance for draft,
 allowance for rapping or shake,
 allowance for distortion and
 allowance for mould wall movement.
1. SHRINKAGE ALLOWANCE
 In practice it is found that all common cast metals shrink a
significant amount when they are cooled from the molten
state.
The total contraction in volume
 1. Liquid contraction, i.e. the contraction during the period in
which the temperature of the liquid metal or alloy falls from the
pouring temperature to the liquidus temperature.
 2. Contraction on cooling from the liquidus to the solidus
temperature, i.e. solidifying contraction.
 3. Contraction that results there after until the temperature
reaches the room temperature. This is known as solid contraction.
 The first two of the above are taken care of by proper gating
and risering.
 Only the last one, i.e. the solid contraction is taken care by
the pattern makers by giving a positive shrinkage allowance.
 The contraction allowances for different metals and
alloys such as
 Cast Iron 10 mm/m.

 Brass 16 mm/m,
 Aluminium Alloys. 15 mm/m.,
 Steel 21 mm/m,
 Lead 24 mm/m.
 Copper 16mm/m.
In fact, there is a special rule known as the pattern

marks contraction rule / shrinkage rule in which
the shrinkage of the casting metals is added.
2. Machining Allowance
 It is a positive allowance given to compensate for the

amount of material that is lost in machining or
finishing the casting.
 If this allowance is not given, the casting will become
undersize after machining.
 The amount of this allowance depends on the size of
casting, methods of machining and the degree of
finish.
 the value varies from 3 mm. to 18 mm.
3. Draft or Taper Allowance
 Taper allowance is also a positive allowance and is
given on all the vertical surfaces of pattern so that its
withdrawal becomes easier.
 The normal amount of taper on the external surfaces
varies from 10 mm to 20 mm/mt. On interior holes and
recesses which are smaller in size, the taper should be
around 60 mm/mt. These values are greatly affected by
 the size of the pattern and the molding method. In
machine molding its, value varies from 10 mm to 50
mm/mt.
4. Rapping or Shake Allowance
 Actually by rapping, the external sections move

outwards increasing the size and internal
 sections move inwards decreasing the size.
 This movement may be insignificant in the case of
 small and medium size castings, but it is significant in

the case of large castings.
 This allowance is kept negative and hence the
pattern is made slightly smaller in dimensions 0.5-1.0
mm.
5. Distortion Allowance
 This allowance is applied to the castings which have

the tendency to distort during cooling due to thermal
stresses developed.
 For example a casting in the form of U shape will
contract at the closed end on cooling, while the open
end will remain fixed in position.
 Therefore, to avoid the distortion, the legs of U
pattern must converge slightly so that the sides will
remain parallel after cooling.
II. CORE
II. CORE
 Cores serve to produce internal surfaces in castings, in
some cases, they have to be supported by chaplets for
more stable positioning.
 For producing hallow casting.
 The core is normally a disposable item that is

destroyed to get it out of the piece.
Eg. the use of cores is in
the casting of engine
blocks
Definition of core:-
Cores are compact mass of core sand that when placed
in mould cavity at required location with proper
alignment does not allow the molten metal to occupy
space for solidification in that portion and hence help
to produce hollowness in the casting.
TYPES OF CORE
Cores are classified according to shape and position

in the mold.
1. Horizontal core
2. Vertical core
3. Balanced core
4. Hanging and cover core –wire support
5. Wind up core- below or above parting line
6. Ram up core- before ramming
7. Kiss core - no core prints (seat)
 Horizontal
 Usually cylindrical,
laid horizontally at
parting plane
 Core rest in seats
provided by core
print on pattern
5/16/2019 MILIND WASEKAR

 Vertical
 Both in cope and

drag
 Top and bottom
provided with taper -
alignment

 Balanced
 Opening on one side
of casting
 Only one core print
 Core print is made
large to balance the
weight and sufficient
support
 Long core supported
by chaplets

 CoverCover hanging
from cope plus
support at bottom in
drag

 Hanging
 Corehangs from cope

and no support at
bottom of drag

 Wing
 When hole is required in
casting above or below
the parting line
 Side of core is given
sufficient amount of
taper so core can be
placed easily
 Also called as drop core,
tail core, chair or saddle
core

 Ram – up
 Setting the core
brfore mould is
rammed
 core details located
in in-acessible
position

 Kiss Core
 No core prints and
no seta is available
 Core is held between
cope and drag simply
by pressure of cope

Horizontal Vertical
Cover
Balanced
Hanging Wing
Ram-up Kiss core

Fig. Vertical core
Fig. Balancing core

CORE MAKING
 Core making basically is carried out in four

stages namely
 1. core sand preparation,
 2. core making,
 3. core baking and
 4. core finishing.
I. CORE SAND CHARACTERISTICS / PROPERTIES
 It is special kind of molding sand.

 Those considerations involves
 (i) The cores are subjected to a very high temperature and
hence the core sand should be highly refractory in nature
 (ii) The permeability of the core sand must be sufficiently
high as compared to that of the molding sands so as to
allow the core gases to escape through the limited area of
the core recesses generated by core prints
 (iii) The core sand should not possess such materials
which may produce gases while they come in contact with
molten metal and
 (iv) The core sand should be collapsible in nature, i.e. it
should disintegrate after the metal solidifies, because this
property will ease the cleaning of the casting.
Core Material
 The main constituents of the core sand are pure silica
sand and a binder.
 Silica sand is preferred because of its high
refractoriness.
 For higher values of permeability sands with coarse
grain size distribution are used.
 The main purpose of the core binder is to hold the
grains together, impart strength and sufficient degree
collapsibility.
Commonly used binders in core making..
1. Cereal binder
It develops green strength, baked strength and collapsibility
in core. The amount of these binders used varies from 0.2 to 2.2%
by weight in the core sand.
2. Protein binder
It is generally used to increase collapsibility property of core.
3. Thermo setting resin
It is gaining popularity nowadays because it imparts high
strength, collapsibility to core sand and it also evolve minimum
amount of mold and core gases which may produce defects in the
casting. The most common binders under this group are phenol
formaldehyde and urea formaldehyde.
4. Sulphite binder
Sulphite binder is also sometimes used in core but along
with certain amount of clay.
5. Dextrin
It is commonly added in core sand for increasing
collapsibility and baked strength of core
ii. The process of core making is basically mechanized
using core blowing, core ramming and core drawing
machines
1.Core blowing machines
 The basic principle of core blowing machine comprises
of filling the core sand into the core box by using
compressed air.
 The velocity of the compressed air is kept high to obtain
a high velocity of core sand particles, thus ensuring
their deposit in the remote corners the core box.
 On entering the core sand with high kinetic energy, the
shaping and ramming of core is carried out
simultaneously in the core box.
2. Core ramming machines
 Cores can also be prepared by ramming core sands in the
core boxes by machines based on the principles of squeezing,
jolting and slinging.
 Out of these three machines, jolting and slinging are more
common for core making.
3. Core drawing machines

 The core drawing is preferred when the core boxes have
deep draws. After ramming sand in it, the core box is placed
on a core plate supported on the machine bed.
 A rapping action on the core box is produced by a vibrating
vertical plate.
 This rapping action helps in drawing off the core from the
core box.
 After rapping, the core box, the core is pulled up thus
leaving the core on the core plate.
 The drawn core is then baked further before its use in mold
cavity to produce hollowness in the casting.
iii. Core baking
 Once the cores are prepared, they will be baked in a

baking ovens or furnaces.
 The main purpose of baking is to drive away the
moisture and hard en the binder, thereby giving
strength to the core.
Dielectric bakers
 After baking of cores, they are smoothened using dextrin

and water soluble binders.
Type of cores
1. GREEN SAND CORES

 Green sand cores are made by green sand containing moist condition
about 5% water and 15- 30 % clay.
 It imparts very good permeability to core and thus avoids defects
like shrinkage or voids in the casting. Green sand cores are not dried.
 They are poured in green condition and are generally preferred for
simple, small and medium castings.
 Such cores possess less strength in comparison to dry sand cores and
hence cannot be stored for longer period.
2. DRY SAND CORES
 Dry sand cores are produced by drying the green sand cores to about
110°C.
 These cores possess high strength rigidity and also good thermal
stability.
 These cores can be stored for long period and are more stable than
green sand core. They are used for large castings.
 They also produce good surface finish in comparison to green sand
cores.
CORE BOX
 Any kind of hollowness in form of holes and recesses in

castings is obtained by the use of cores.
 Cores are made by means of core boxes comprising of
either single or in two parts.
 Core boxes are generally made of wood or metal and
are of several types.
 The main types of core box are
 half core box,
 dump core box,
 split core box,
 strickle core box,
 right and left hand core box and
 loose piece core box.
1. Half core box
 This is the most common type of core box. The
two identical halves of a symmetrical core
prepared in the half core box.
 Two halves of cores are pasted or cemented
together after baking to form a complete core.
2. Dump core box
 Dump core box is similar in construction to half core
box.
 The cores produced do not require pasting, rather they
are complete by themselves.
 If the core produced is in the shape of a slab, then it is
called as a slab box or a rectangular box.
 A dump core-box is used to prepare complete core in it.
Generally cylindrical and rectangular cores are
prepared in these boxes.
3. Split core box
 Split core boxes are made in two parts.
 They form the complete core by only one ramming.
 The two parts of core boxes are held in position by

means of clamps and their alignment is maintained by
means of dowel pins and thus core is produced.
4. Right and left hand core box
 Some times the cores are not symmetrical about the center
line. In such cases, right and left hand core boxes are used.
The two halves of a core made in the same core box are not
identical and they cannot be pasted together.
5. Strickle core box
 This type of core box is used when a core with an irregular
shape is desired. The required shape is achieved by striking
oft the core sand from the top of the core box with a wooden
piece, called as strickle board. The strickle board has the
same contour as that of the required core.
6. Loose piece core box
 Loose piece core boxes are highly suitable for making cores
where provision for bosses, hubs etc. is required. In such
cases, the loose pieces may be located by dowels, nails and
dovetails etc. In certain cases, with the help of loose pieces,
a single core box can be made to generate both halves of the
right-left core.
Color codification for patterns and core
boxes
 There is no set or accepted standard for representing of
various surfaces of pattern and core boxes by different
colors.
 The American practice is the most popular.
 In this practice, the color identification is as follows.
surfaces color
Unfinished Surfaces black
Machined surfaces red
Core prints yellow
Seats for loose pieces red stripes on yellow background
Stop-offs black stripes on yellow base
CORE PRINTS
 When a hole blind or through is needed in the casting, a
core is placed in the mould cavity to produce the same.
 The core has to be properly located or positioned in the
mould cavity on pre-formed recesses or impressions in
the sand.
 To form these recesses or impressions for generating
seat for placement of core, extra projections are added
on the pattern surface at proper places.
 These extra projections on the pattern (used for
producing recesses in the mould for placement of cores
at that location) are known as core prints.
 The core is placed in the metal casting after the
removal of the pattern.
III. GATING SYSTEM
 In order for this mold to be functional to manufacture a

casting, in addition to the impression of the part, the
mold cavity will also need to include a gating system.
 Sometimes the gating system will be cut by hand or in
more adept manufacturing procedures the gating
system will be incorporated into the pattern along with
the part.
 Basically a gating system functions during the metal
casting operation to facilitate the flow of the molten
material into the mold cavity.
Pouring Basin:
 This is where the molten metal employed to
manufacture the part enters the mold. The pouring
basin should have a projection with a radius around it
to reduce turbulence.
Down Sprue:
 From the pouring basin the molten metal for the
casting travels through the down sprue. This should
be tapered so its cross-section is reduced as it goes
downward.
Sprue Base:
 The down sprue ends at the sprue base. It is here that
the casting's inner cavity begins.
Gate
 It is a small passage or channel being cut by gate
cutter which connect runner with the mould cavity and
through which molten metal flows to fill the mould
cavity.
 It feeds the liquid metal to the casting at the rate
consistent with the rate of solidification.
Choke
 It is that part of the gating system which possesses
smallest cross-section area.
 In choked system, gate serves as a choke, but in free
gating system sprue serves as a choke.
Chaplets
 Chaplets are metal distance pieces inserted in a mould either
to prevent shifting of mould or locate core surfaces.
 The distances pieces in form of chaplets are made of parent
metal of which the casting is. These are placed in mould
cavity suitably which positions core and to give extra support
to core and mould surfaces.
 Its main objective is to impart good alignment of mould and
core surfaces and to achieve directional solidification.
 When the molten metal is poured in the mould cavity, the
chaplet melts and fuses itself along with molten metal during
solidification and thus forms a part of the cast material.
Chills
 At that particular position, the special mould surface
for fast extraction of heat is to be made.
 The fast heat extracting metallic materials known as
chills will be incorporated separately along with sand
mould surface during molding.
 Thus, the main function of chill is to provide a hard
surface at a localized place in
 the casting by way of special and fast solidification.
Runners:
 Runners are passages that distribute the liquid metal
to the different areas inside the mold.
Main Cavity:
 The impression of the actual part to be cast is often
referred to as the main cavity.
Vents:
 Vents help to assist in the escape of gases that are
expelled from the molten metal during the
solidification phase of the metal casting process.
Risers:
 Risers are reservoirs of molten material. They feed this
material to sections of the mold to compensate for shrinkage
as the casting solidifies. There are different classifications for
risers.
Top Risers: Risers that feed the metal casting from the top.
Side Risers: Risers that feed the metal casting from the side.
Blind Risers: Risers that are completely contained within
the mold.
Open Risers: Risers that are open at the top to the outside
environment.
Figure . Illustrates the

difference between top
risers and side risers.
WHY RISER?
 The shrinkage occurs in three stages,
1. When temperature of liquid metal drops from pouring to
zero temperature
2. When the metal changes from liquid to solid state, and
3. When the temperature of solid phase drops from freezing
to room temperature
 The shrinkage for stage 3 is compensated by providing

shrinkage allowance on pattern, while the shrinkage during
stages 1 and 2 are compensated by providing risers.
 The riser should solidify in the last otherwise liquid metal
will start flowing from casting to riser. It should promote
directional solidification. The shape, size and location of the
risers are important considerations in casting design
IV. MOLDING SAND
 The general sources of receiving molding sands are the

beds of sea, rivers, lakes, granular elements of rocks,
and deserts.
 The common sources of molding sands available in
India are as follows:
 1 Batala sand ( Punjab)
 2 Ganges sand (Uttar Pradesh)
 3 Oyaria sand (Bihar)
 4 Damodar and Barakar sands (Bengal- Bihar Border)
 5 Londha sand (Bombay)
 6 Gigatamannu sand (Andhra Pradesh) and
 7 Avadi and Veeriyambakam sand (Madras)
 Molding sands may be of two types namely natural or
synthetic.
 Natural molding sands contain sufficient binder.
 Whereas synthetic molding sands are prepared

artificially using basic sand molding constituents
(silica sand in 88-92%, binder 6-12%, water or
moisture content 3-6%) and other additives in proper
proportion by weight with perfect mixing and mulling
in suitable equipments.
CONSTITUENTS OF MOLDING SAND
 The main constituents of molding sand involve silica sand, binder,

moisture content and additives.
1. Silica sand
 Silica sand in form of granular quarts is the main constituent of
molding sand having enough refractoriness which can impart
strength, stability and permeability to molding and core sand.
 But along with silica small amounts of iron oxide, alumina, lime
stone, magnesia, soda and potash are present as impurities.
 The chemical composition of silica sand gives an idea of the
impurities like lime, magnesia, alkalis etc. present.
 The presence of excessive amounts of iron oxide, alkali oxides and
lime can lower the fusion point to a considerable extent which is
undesirable.
 The silica sand can be specified according to the size (small,
medium and large silica sand grain) and the shape (angular, sub-
angular and rounded).
2. Binder
 In general, the binders can be either inorganic or organic
substance.
 The inorganic group includes clay sodium silicate and port land
cement etc. In foundry shop, the clay acts as binder which may be
Kaolonite, Ball Clay, Fire Clay, Limonite, Fuller’s earth and
Bentonite.
 Binders included in the organic group are dextrin, molasses, cereal
binders, linseed oil and resins like phenol formaldehyde, urea
formaldehyde etc.
 Organic binders are mostly used for core making.
 Among all the above binders, the bentonite variety of clay is the
most common.
 However, this clay alone can not develop bonds among sand grins
without the presence of moisture in molding sand and core sand.
3. Moisture
 The amount of moisture content in the molding sand varies
generally between 2 to 8 percent.
 This amount is added to the mixture of clay and silica sand
for developing bonds.
 This is the amount of water required to fill the pores
between the particles of clay without separating them.
 This amount of water is held rigidly by the clay and is
mainly responsible for developing the strength in the sand.
 The effect of clay and water decreases permeability with
increasing clay and moisture content.
 The green compressive strength first increases with the
increase in clay content, but after a certain value, it starts
decreasing.
4 Additives
 Additives are the materials generally added to the
molding and core sand mixture to develop some special
property in the sand.
4.1 Coal dust
 Coal dust is added mainly for producing a reducing
atmosphere during casting.
 This reducing atmosphere results in any oxygen in the
poles becoming chemically bound so that it cannot
oxidize the metal.
 It is usually added in the molding sands for making
molds for production of grey iron and malleable cast
iron castings.
4.2 Corn flour
 It belongs to the starch family of carbohydrates and is
used to increase the collapsibility of the molding and
core sand.
 It is completely volatilized by heat in the mould,
thereby leaving space between the sand grains.
 This allows free movement of sand grains, which finally
gives rise to mould wall movement and decreases the
mold expansion and hence defects in castings.
 Corn sand if added to molding sand and core sand
improves significantly strength of the mold and core.
4.3 Dextrin
 Dextrin belongs to starch family of carbohydrates that
behaves also in a manner similar to that of the corn flour. It
increases dry strength of the molds.
4.4 Sea coal
 Sea coal is the fine powdered bituminous coal which
positions its place among the pores of the silica sand grains
in molding sand and core sand.
 When heated, it changes to coke which fills the pores and is
unaffected by water: Because to this, the sand grains
become restricted and cannot move into a dense packing
pattern.
 Thus, sea coal reduces the mould wall movement and the
permeability in mold and core sand and hence makes the
mold and core surface clean and smooth.
4.5 Pitch
 It is distilled form of soft coal. It can be added from 0.02 % to
2% in mold and core sand.
 It enhances hot strengths, surface finish on mold surfaces
and behaves exactly in a manner similar to that of sea coal.
4.6 Wood flour
 This is a fibrous material mixed with a granular material
like sand; its relatively long thin fibers prevent the sand
grains from making contact with one another.
 It can be added from 0.05 % to 2% in mold and core sand.
 It also increases collapsibility of both of mold and core.
4.7 Silica flour
 It is called as pulverized silica and it can be easily added up
to 3% which increases the hot strength and finish on the
surfaces of the molds and cores. It also reduces metal
penetration in the walls of the molds and cores.
MOULDING SAND/ FOUNDRY SAND
 Moulding Sands:
 Most sand casting operations use Silica sand (SiO2).
Usually sand used to manufacture a mould for the
casting process is held together by a mixture of water
and clay. A typical mixture by volume could be 89%
sand, 4% water, 7% clay.
TYPES OF MOULDING SANDS
 Classification of moulding sands:
1. Green sand:
 It is sand used in the wet condition for making the
mould. It is mixture of silica sand with 15-25 per cent
clay and 6-8 per cent water
 As explained earlier green sand moulds are not dried
and metal is poured in them in the wet condition
 Being damp the sand can be easily worked with hand
to give it any desired shape
This sand is used for

producing small to medium
sized moulds which are not
very complex
2. Dry sand:
 Dry sand is the green sand that has been dried or
baked after preparing the mould.
 Drying sand gives strength to the mould so that it can
be used for larger castings
 3. Loam sand:
 Loam sand is sand containing up to 50 % clay which
has been worked to the consistency of builder mortar.
 This sand is used for loam sand moulds for making
very heavy castings usually with the help of sweeps
and skeleton patterns.
 4. Parting sand:
 This sand is used during making of the mould to ensure that
green sand does not stick to the pattern and the cope and
drug parts can be easily separated for removing the pattern
without causing any damage to the mould.
 Parting sand consists of fine grained clay free dried silica
sand, sea sand or burnt sand with some parting compounds.
 The parting compounds used include charcoal, ground bone
and limestone, groundnut shells, talc and calcium phosphate.
 5. Facing sand:
 Facing sand is the sand which covers the pattern all around it.
The remaining box is filled with ordinary floor sand.
 Facing sand forms the face of the mould and comes in direct
contact with the molten metal when it is poured.
 High strength and refractoriness are required for this sand.
 It is made of silica sand and clay without the addition of any
used sand.
 Graphite, mollases, plumbago etc. may be added to the facing
sand. Thickness of the sand layer varies from 20 to 30 mm.
 6. Backing sand:
 Backing sand is the bulk of the sand used to back up the
facing sand and to fill up the volume of the flask.
 It consists mainly of old, repeatedly used moulding sand
which is generally black in colour due to addition of coal
dust and burning on contact with hot metal.
 Because of the colour backing sand is also sometimes
called black sand.
 The main purpose for the use of backing sand is to reduce
the cost of moulding.
 7. System sand:
 This is the sand used in mechanized foundries for filling
the entire flask.
 No separate facing sand in used in a mechanized
foundry.
 Sand, cleaned and reactivated by the addition of water
and binders is used to fill the flask. Because of the
absence of any fresh sand, system sand must have more
strength, permeability and refractoriness compared to
backing sand.
 8. Core sand:
 Core sand is the sand used for making cores. This is
silica sand mixed with core oil. That is why it is also
called oil sand.
 The core oil consists of linseed oil, resin, light mineral oil
with some binders.
 For larger cores, sometimes pitch or flour and water
may also be used to save on cost.
IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS ARE:
 1. These sands are refractory in nature and can

withstand temperature of the metal being poured,
without fusing.
 2. The moulding sands do not chemically react or
combine with molten metal and can therefore be used
repeatedly.
 3. The sands have a high degree of permeability and
thus allow the gases formed during pouring to escape.
 4. The strength, permeability and hardness of the sand
mix can be varied by changing the structure or
ingredients of sand.
PROPERTIES OF MOULDING SANDS:
 1. Strength
 2. Permeability
 3. Grain Size and Shape
 4. Thermal stability
 5. Refractoriness
 6. Flow ability
 7. Sand Texture
 8. Collapsibility
 9. Adhesiveness
 10. Reusability
 11. Easy of preparation and control
 12. Conductivity
STRENGTH:
 The sand should have adequate strength in its green, dry

and hot states
 Green strength is the strength of sand in the wet state and
is required for making possible to prepare and handle the
mould.
 If the metal is poured into a green mould the sand adjacent
to the metal dries and in the dry state it should have
strength to resist erosion and the pressure of metal.
 The strength of the sand that has been dried or basked is
called dry strength.
 At the time of pouring the molten metal the mould must be
able to withstand flow and pressure of the metal at high
temperature otherwise the mould may enlarge, crack, get
washed or break
STRENGTH OF THE MOULDING SAND DEPENDS ON:
 1. Grain size and shape

 2. Moisture content
 3. Density of sand after ramming
 The strength of the mould increases with a decrease

of grain size and an increase of clay content and
density after ramming.
 The strength also goes down if moisture content is

higher than an optimum value.
 2. Permeability:
 The moulding sand must be sufficiently porous to
allow the dissolved gases, which are evolved when
the metal freezes or moisture present or generated
within the moulds to be removed freely when the
moulds are poured.
 This property of sand is called porosity or
permeability.
 3. Grain size and shape:
 ·The size and shape of the grains in the sand
determine the application in various types of foundry.
These are three different sizes of sand grains.
 1. Fine
 2. Medium
 3. Coarse
 Fine sand is used for small and intricate castings.
 Medium sand is used for benchmark and light floor

works.
 If the size of casting is larger coarse sand is used
 Sand having fine, rounded grains can be closely

packed and forms a smooth surface. Although fine-
grained sand enhances mould strength.
4. Thermal stability:
 The sand adjacent to the metal is suddenly heated
and undergoes expansion.
 If the mould wall is not dimensionally stable under
rapid heating, cracks, buckling and flacking off sand
may occur.
5. Refractoriness:
 Refractoriness is the property of withstanding
the high temperature condition moulding sand
with low refractoriness may burn on to the
casting.
 It is the ability of the moulding material to resist
the temperature of the liquid metal to be poured
so that it does not get fused with the metal.
 The refractoriness of the Silica sand is highest.
6. Flowability:
 Flowability or plasticity is the property of the sand to
respond to the moulding process so that when
rammed it will flow all around the pattern and take
the desired mould shape. High flowability of sand is
desirable for the sand to get compacted to a uniform
density and to get good impression of the pattern in
the mould.
Flowability is also
very important in
machine moulding
·Flowability of sand
increases as clay and
water content are
increased.
 7. Sand texture:
 As mentioned earlier the texture of sand is defined
by its grain size and grain size distribution.
 The texture chosen for an application should allow
the required porosity, provide enough strength and
produce the desired surface finish on the casting.
 8. Collapsibility:
 The moulding sand should collapse during the

contraction of the solidified casting it does not
provide any resistance, which may result in cracks in
the castings.
 Besides these specific properties the moulding
material should be cheap, reusable and should have
good thermal conductivity
 9. Adhesiveness:
 The sand particles must be capable of adhering to
another body, then only the sand should be easily
attach itself with the sides of the moulding box and
give easy of lifting and turning the box when filled with
the stand.
Cohesiveness
10. Reusability:
 Since large quantities of sand are used in a foundry it is
very important that the sand be reusable otherwise apart
from cost it will create disposal problems
11. Easy of preparation and control:

 Sand should lend itself to easy preparation and control by
mechanical equipment
12. Conductivity:
 Sand should have enough conductivity to permit removal
of heat from the castings.
SAND TESTING METHODS AND SAND TESTING EQUIPMENT
1. Moisture content Test

 1. Moisture content test
2. Clay content Test
 2. Clay content test 3. Chemical composition of sand
 3. Grain fitness test 4. Grain shape and surface texture of
 4. Permeability test sand.
5. Grain size distribution of sand
 5. Strength test
6. Specific surface of sand grains
 6. Refractoriness test 7. Water absorption capacity of sand
 7. Mould hardness test 8. Refractoriness of sand
9. Strength Test
10. Permeability Test
11. Flowability Test
12. Shatter index Test
13. Mould hardness Test.
1. MOISTURE CONTENT TEST:
 Moisture is the property of the moulding sand it

is defined as the amount of water present in the
moulding sand. Low moisture content in the
moulding sand does not develop strength
properties. High moisture content decreases
permeability.
 Procedures are:
 1. 20 to 50 gms of prepared sand is placed in the pan
and is heated by an infrared heater bulb for 2 to 3
minutes.
 2. The moisture in the moulding sand is thus
evaporated.
 3. Moulding sand is taken out of the pan and
reweighed.
 4. The percentage of moisture can be calculated from
the difference in the weights, of the original moist and
the consequently dried sand samples.
 Percentage of moisture content = (W1-W2)/(W1) %
Where, W1-Weight of the sand before drying,

W2-Weight of the sand after drying.
2. CLAY CONTENT TEST
 Clay influences strength, permeability and other
moulding properties. It is responsible for bonding
sand particles together.
PROCEDURES ARE:
 1. Small quantity of prepared moulding sand was dried
 2. Separate 50 gms of dry moulding sand and transfer wash bottle.
 3. Add 475cc of distilled water + 25cc of a 3% NaOH.
 4. Agitate this mixture about 10 minutes with the help of sand
stirrer.
 5. Fill the wash bottle with water up to the marker.
 6. After the sand etc., has settled for about 10 minutes, Siphon out
the water from the wash bottle.
 7. Dry the settled down sand.
 8. The clay content can be determined from the difference in
weights of the initial and final sand samples.
Percentage of clay content = (W1-W2)/(W1) * 100

Where,
 W1-Weight of the sand before drying,
 W2-Weight of the sand after drying.
3. GRAIN FITNESS TEST:
 The grain size, distribution, grain fitness are

determined with the help of the fitness testing of
moulding sands.
 The apparatus consists of a number of standard sieves
mounted one above the other, on a power driven shaker.
 The shaker vibrates the sieves and the sand placed on
the top sieve gets screened and collects on different
sieves depending upon the various sizes of grains
present in the moulding sand.
 The top sieve is coarsest and the bottom-most sieve is
the finest of all the sieves. In between sieve are placed
in order of fineness from top to bottom.
 Procedures are:
 1. Sample of dry sand (clay removed sand) placed in
the upper sieve
 2. Sand is vibrated for definite period
 3. The amount of same retained on each sieve is

weighted.
 4. Percentage distribution of grain is computed.
3. PERMEABILITY TEST:
 The quantity of air that will pass through a
standard specimen of the sand at a particular
pressure condition is called the permeability of
the sand.
 Following are the major parts of the permeability
test equipment:
 1. An inverted bell jar, which floats in a water.
 2. Specimen tube, for the purpose of hold the

equipment
 3. A manometer (measure the air pressure)
Steps involved are:
 1. The air (2000cc volume) held in the bell jar is forced to
pass through the sand specimen.
 2. At this time air entering the specimen equal to the air
escaped through the specimen
 3. Take the pressure reading in the manometer.
 4. Note the time required for 2000cc of air to pass the
sand
 5. Calculate the permeability number
 6. Permeability number (N) = ((V x H) / (A x P x T))
 Where,
 V-Volume of air (cc)
 H-Height of the specimen (mm)
 A-Area of the specimen (mm2)
 P-Air pressure (gm / cm2)
 T-Time taken by the air to pass through the sand (seconds)
STRENGTH TEST:
 Measurements of strength of moulding sands can be
carried out on the universal sand strength testing
machine. The strength can be measured in compression,
shear and tension.
 The sands that could be tested are green sand, dry sand
or core sand. The compression and shear test involve
the standard cylindrical specimen that was used for the
permeability test.
Steps involved are:
1. Specimen is held between
the grips
2. Apply the hydraulic
pressure by rotating the
hand wheel
3. Taking the deformation
use of the indicators.
REFRACTORINESS TEST
 The refractoriness is used to measure the ability
of the sand to withstand the higher temperature.
Steps involved are:

1. Prepare a cylindrical specimen of
sand
2. Heating the specimen at 1500 C
for 2 hours
3. Observe the changes in dimension
and appearance
4. If the sand is good, it retains
specimen share and shows very little
expansion. If the sand is poor,
specimen will shrink and distort.
MOULD HARDNESS TEST
 Hardness of the mould surface can be tested with the help
of an “indentation hardness tester”. It consists of indicator,
spring loaded spherical indenter.
The spherical indenter is penetrates into the mould

surface at the time of testing. The depth of
penetration w.r.t. the flat reference surface of the
tester.
Mould hardness number = ((P) / (D – (D2-d2))
Where,
P- Applied Force (N)
D- Diameter of the indenter (mm)
d- Diameter of the indentation (mm)
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SAND CASTING
 Advantages of sand casting
 Low cost of mold materials and equipment.

 Large casting dimensions may be obtained.
 Wide variety of metals and alloys (ferrous and non-
ferrous) may be cast (including high melting point
metals).
 Disadvantages of sand casting
 Rough surface.
 Poor dimensional accuracy.
 High machining tolerances.
 Coarse Grain structure.
 Limited wall thickness: not higher than 0.1”-0.2” (2.5-
5 mm).
Advantages: Can produce very large parts
Can form complex shapes
Many material options
Low tooling and equipment cost
Scrap can be recycled
Short lead time possible
Disadvantages: Poor material strength

High porosity possible
Poor surface finish and tolerance
Seondary machining often required
Low production rate
High labor cost
Applications: Engine blocks and manifolds, machine bases,

gears, pulleys, crankshafts, connecting rods,
and propellers, cylinder heads, and
transmission cases
V. The Mold
•The pattern is placed in the
mold and the mold material
is packed around it.
• The mold contains two
parts, the drag (bottom), and
the cope (top).
•The parting line between
the cope and drag allows for
the mold to be opened and
the pattern to be removed
once the impression has been
made.
•For some moulds additional
intermediate boxes called
“Cheeks” may be required.
A typical mold is shown in figure

MOLD (USED IN US ) / MOULD ( USED IN BRITAIN ET AL.)
 A mold is formed into the geometric shape of a desired

part.
 Molten metal is then poured into the mold, the mold
holds this material in shape as it solidifies. A metal
casting is created.
 Molds can be classified as either open or closed.
 A open mold is a container, like a cup, that has only the

shape of the desired part.
 The molten material is poured directly into the mold
cavity which is exposed to the open environment.
OPEN AND CLOSED MOULD
 Two main branches of methods can be distinguished
by the basic nature of the mold they employ.
 There is expendable mold casting and permanent
mold casting.
•Expendable Mold Can •Permanent Mold Can

produce one metal casting only manufacture many metal
•Made of sand, plaster, or other castings
similar material. Binders used •Usually made of metal or
to help material hold its form. sometimes a refractory ceramic
•Mold that metal solidifies in •Mold has sections that can
must be destroyed to remove open or close permitting
casting removal of the casting
•More intricate geometries are •Need to open mold limits part
possible for casting shapes
MOULD MAKING
 Making a mould properly means a casting half done.

 A sand mould is formed by packing sand into each half
of the mould.
 The sand is packed around the pattern, which is a
replica of the external shape of the casting.
 When the pattern is removed, the cavity that will form
the casting remains.
 Any internal features of the casting that cannot be
formed by the pattern are formed by separate cores
which are made of sand prior to the formation of the
mould.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MOLD
 The mould should be strong enough to resist erosion by the
flow of the metal and to take the weight of the metal.
 The mould material should not produce too much of gases as
the gases may enter the mould cavity and get entrapped
with metal or violently boil out the metal.
 The mould should be made in such a way that gases
generated are vented out of the mould.
 The mould should be refractory enough to withstand the
high temperature of liquid metal.
 The cores should be collapsible enough to permit contraction
of the metal after solidification.
 Flow should be laminar i.e. smooth flow
 There should be a proper riser system in the mould to
provide sufficient extra metal to account for the liquid and
solidification shrinkage.
 The mould material and moulding process should be such
that cleaning of castings is facilitated.
MOLDING TOOLS
1.Mallet:
 It is a mallet to loosen the pattern in the mould by
striking slightly, so that it can be withdrawn without
damaging the mould
 2. Gate cutter:
 It is a metal piece to the gate the opening that connects
tee sprue with the mould cavity. (sleek)
 3. Rapping plate (or) Lifting plate:
 It is used to facilitate shaking and lifting large pattern
from the mold.
 4. Spirit level:
 It is used to check that the sand bed, moulding box or
table of moulding machine is horizontal.
 5. Clamps:
 Clamps are used to hold the cope and drag of the
complete mould together so that the cope may not float
or rise when the molten metal is poured into the mould.
 6. Moulding box:
 Sand moulds are prepared specially constructed boxes
called the moulding boxes or flasks. The function and
construction of a molding box have already been
described.
Moulding flasks
 7.Shovel:
 It is just like rectangular pan fitted with a
handle. It is used for mixing the moulding sand
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and for moving it from one place to the other.
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 8. Riddle:
 It is used for removing foreign materials like
nails, shot metal splinters of wood etc from the
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moulding sand.
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 9. Rammer:
 It is a wooden tool used for ramming or packing
the sand in the mould. Rammers are made in
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different shapes.
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 10. Strike-off bar:
 It is a cast iron or wrought iron bar with a true
straight edge. It is used to remove the surplus sand
from the mould after the ramming has been completed.
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 11. Vent wire:
 It is a mild steel wire used for making vents or
openings in the mould.
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 12. Lifter:
 It is a metal piece used for patching deep section of the
mould and removing loose sand from pockets of the
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mould.
 13. Slick:
Different types of slicks are used for repairing and
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
finishing moulds.
14. Trowel:
It contains of a flat and thick metal sheet
with upwards projected handle at one end. It
is used for making joints and finishing flat
surface of a mould.
15. Swab:
It is made of flax or hemp. It is used for
applying water to the mould around the
edge of the pattern.
MOULDING MACHINES
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 Moulding processes may be classified as hand
moulding or machine moulding according to whether
the mould is prepared by hand tools or with the aid of
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some moulding machine.
 Hand moulding is generally found to be economical
when the castings are required in a small number.
 The major functions of molding machines involves
ramming of molding sand, rolling over or inverting the
mould, rapping the pattern and withdrawing the
pattern from the mould.
 Most of the molding machines perform a combination
of two or more of functions.
Types of Moulding machine:
1. Hand Operated molding machine
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a. Pattern draw type
b. Pattern draw and Squeeze type
c. Pin Lift type machine
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d. Roll Over type machine
2. Power operated Molding Machine
a. Squeeze machine
b. Jolt machine
c. Jolt squeeze machine
d. Jolt squeeze roll over pattern draw
machine
e. Sand Slinger
SQUEEZER
 1.table 2. pattern 3. flask. 4.Sand frame 5.

platen
6. squeezer head. 7. frame

SQUEEZER
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 Molding sand squeezed between machine
table and overhead squeeze board
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 Pneumatic or hydraulic
 Top squeezing
 Bottom squeezing
 Limitation- sand is packed more densely
on top of mould
 Density deceases uniformly with depth
 At parting plane density is lowest
 Restricted to molds up to 150 mm depth
JOLT MACHINE
 1.table.3.patern
and flask.8.
plunger.9
hose.10. channel.
 11. opening
 12. guide cylinder

 13. springs

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 Flask is filled with moulding sand
 Table supporting flask is raised and
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dropped in succession
 Due to sudden change in inertia – sand
gets packed and rammed
 Action of raising and sudden dropping –
jolt
 Drawback – sand is rammed hardest at
parting plane sand remains les dense at
tops
 Preferred fro horizontal surfaces
JOLT SQUEEZE MACHINE
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 Jolting action to consolodate sand on face of
pattern
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 Squeezing – desired density throughout mass of
sand
 Mold with maximum hardness,unform ramming
SAND SLINGER
Slinging – consolidation and ramming due to impact of
sand which falls at very high velocity
Rate – 500 to 2000kg per min.

Mold of adequate strength , hardness
 Overhead impellar
head 1. housing. 2.
blade 3. opening 4.
outlet
 Conveyor buckets

Jolt-Squeeze machine
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Sand slinger
5. PATTERN DRAW MACHINES
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 These machines enable easy withdrawal of patterns
from the molds.
 They can be of the kind of stripping plate type and pin
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lift or push off type.
 The pattern is drawn through the stripping plate either
by raising the stripping plate and the mould up and
keeping the pattern stationary or by keeping the
stripping plate and mould stationary and moving the
pattern supporting ram downwards along with the
pattern and pattern plate.
 A suitable mechanism can be incorporated in the
machine for these movements.
 6.stripping pins
 1.pattern, 3. pattern plate, table 5, molding box 2
 4. stripping plate between patern plate and flask

6 ROLL-OVER MACHINE
 The pattern is mounted on a plate which is secured to
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the roll-over frame.
 The platen of the machine can be moved up and
down.
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 For preparation of the mould, the roll-over frame is
clamped in position with the pattern facing upward.
 Molding box is placed over the pattern plate and
clamped properly.
 Molding sand is then filled in it and rammed by hand
and the extra molding sand is struck off and molding
board placed over the box and clamped to it.
 Turn over
 Flask together with
work table rotates
1800 and pin 6 lifts
table with pattern
 Pins 6

FOUNDRY SAFETY
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Hand Pouring Equipment
LADLES
Moving molten metal from melting furnace to
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
mold is sometimes done using crucibles
 More often, transfer is accomplished by ladles
Figure 11.21 Two common types of ladles: (a) crane

ladle, and (b) two-man ladle.
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The casting process ( Special Casting process)
1 - Expendable mold casting
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(sand, plastic, shell, and investment (lost-wax technique) mouldings.)
2 - Nonexpendable mold casting
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(permanent, die, centrifugal, and continuous casting).
Classification of die casting:

(a)Gravity Die Casting (also called permanent mould process)
(b)Pressure Die Casting

PRECISION OR INVESTMENT CASTING (LOST
WAX CASTING)
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 Investment (lost wax) casting is a method of
precision casting complex near-net-shape details
using replication of wax patterns.
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 Precision or investment casting employed techniques
that enable very smooth highly accurate castings to
be made from both ferrous and non-ferrous alloys
 The process is useful in casting unmachinable alloys
and radioactive metals.
 In investment casting, the pattern is made of wax,

which melts after making the mold to produce the
mold cavity.
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Ceramic
particles,
wet plaster Investment,
up to 3-5
mm
Ceramic slurry
materials
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Mullite: Al2O3 44-48%,
SiO2 47-51%, Fe2O3 max.
1%, TiO2 max. 1%.
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Zircon flour.
Binders: Colloidal Silica

SiO2 25-45%, Na2O
max.1% in distilled water;
sodium silicate
NaO*nSiO2*mH2O; ethyl
silicate Si(OC2H5)4.
INVESTMENT CASTING PROCESS
 The investment casting process uses expendable patterns made of investment
casting wax.
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 The wax patterns are commonly prepared by injection molding technology
which involves injection of wax into a prefabricated die having the same
geometry of the cavity as the desired cast part.
 The wax patterns are then attached to a gating system (a set of channels
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through which a molten metal flows to the mold cavity).
 The next stage is the shell building - the wax assembly is immersed into
refractory ceramic slurry of hardening mixtures followed by drying. This
operation is repeatedly carried out resulting in formation of a solid ceramic
shell of 1/4” -3/8” (6mm – 9mm) thick.
 The next stage is dewax. At this stage the assembly is heated in an autoclave
where the most of the wax is melted out. This operation is followed by burning
out the residual wax in a furnace.
 The mold is then preheated to 1830°F (1000°C). Now the mold is ready for
filling with a molten metal.
 Casting stage is conventional operation involving pouring a molten metal
into the shell through the gating system.
 After the metal has solidified and cooled to a desired temperature, the shell is
broken and the castings are cut away from the gates and sprue.
 The last stage is finishing carried out by sandblasting or machining.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF INVESTMENT CASTING
Advantages:
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 Excellent surface finish.
 Tight dimensional tolerances.
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 Complex and intricate shapes may be produced.
 Capability to cast thin walls.
 Wide variety of metals and alloys (ferrous and non-ferrous)
may be cast.
 Draft is not required in the molds design.
 Low material waste.
Disadvantages:
 Individual pattern is required for each casting.

 Limited casting dimensions.
 Relatively high cost (tooling cost, labor cost).
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Turbine blades
Turbine blades, armament parts,

pipe fittings, lock parts,
handtools,
Applications:
art pieces, jewelry, dental
fixtures, automotive, aircraft, and
military industries.
DIE CASTING
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A permanent mold casting process in which molten
metal is injected into mold cavity under high
pressure up to 30,000 psi (200 MPa).
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 Pressure is maintained during solidification, then
mold is opened and part is removed
 Molds in this casting operation are called dies;
hence the name die casting
 Use of high pressure to force metal into die cavity
is what distinguishes this from other permanent
mold processes
DIE CASTING MACHINES
 Designed to hold and accurately close two mold halves and
keep them closed while liquid metal is forced into cavity
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 Two main types:
1. Hot-chamber machine
2. Cold-chamber machine
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(1) Cold-chamber Die Casting:
 Material to be cast is molten outside the machine.
 Used for materials having high melting temperature Tm>
550°C, i.e. brass, aluminum, and magnesium.
(2) Hot-chamber Die Casting:

 Materials to be cast is molten inside the machine.
 Used for materials having low melting temperature Tm<
550°C, i.e. zinc, tin, and lead.
HOT-CHAMBER DIE CASTING
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Metal is melted in a container, and a piston injects liquid
metal under high pressure into the die
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 High production rates - 500 parts per hour not
uncommon
 Applications limited to low melting - point metals that

do not chemically attack plunger and other mechanical
components
 Casting metals: zinc, tin, lead, and magnesium

HOT-CHAMBER DIE CASTING
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Figure. Cycle in hot-chamber casting: (1) with die closed and
plunger withdrawn, molten metal flows into the chamber (2)
plunger forces metal in chamber to flow into die, maintaining
pressure during cooling and solidification.
COLD-CHAMBER DIE CASTING MACHINE
Molten metal is poured into unheated chamber from
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
external melting container, and a piston injects
metal under high pressure into die cavity
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 High production but not usually as fast as
hot-chamber machines because of pouring step
 Casting metals: aluminum, brass, and magnesium
alloys
 Advantages of cold-chamber process favor its use on

low melting - point alloys (zinc, tin, lead)
COLD-CHAMBER DIE CASTING
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Figure 11.14 Cycle in cold-chamber casting: (1) with die
closed and ram withdrawn, molten metal is poured
into the chamber
MOLDS FOR DIE CASTING
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 Usually made of tool steel, mold steel, or maraging
steel
 Tungsten and molybdenum (good refractory qualities)
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used to die cast steel and cast iron
 Ejector pins required to remove part from die when it
opens
 Lubricants must be sprayed into cavities to prevent
sticking
Common metals for
die casting.
Alloys of aluminum
Zinc
Magnesium
Lead
Copper
Tin
DIE CASTING
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Can produce large parts
Can form complex shapes
High strength parts
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Advantages: Very good surface finish and accuracy
High production rate
Low labor cost
Scrap can be recycled
Trimming is required
High tooling and equipment cost
Disadvantages:
Limited die life
Long lead time
Engine components, pump components,
automobile components, household appliances,
Applications:
railway and aircraft fittings, bath room hardware,
business machines, locks, pullers
CENTRIFUGAL CASTING
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 Centrifugal casting is a method of casting parts having
axial symmetry. The method involves pouring molten
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metal into a cylindrical mold spinning about its axis of
symmetry.
 The mold is kept rotating till the metal has solidified.
 As the mold material steels, Cast irons, Graphite or sand

may be used.
 The rotation speed of centrifugal mold is commonly

about 1000 RPM (may vary from 250 RPM to 3600
RPM).
CENTRIFUGAL CASTING IS CARRIED OUT AS FOLLOWS
 The mold wall is coated by a refractory ceramic coating

(applying ceramic slurry, spinning, drying and baking).
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 Starting rotation of the mold at a predetermined speed.
 Pouring a molten metal directly into the mold (no gating
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system is employed).
 The mold is stopped after the casting has solidified.
 Extraction of the casting from the mold.
The centrifugal group includes:

 A. True centrifugal casting
 B. Semi-centrifugal casting
 C. Centrifuge casting
A. TRUE CENTRIFUGAL CASTING
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Fig. Setup for true centrifugal casting.
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 Non-metallic and slag
inclusions and gas bubbles
being less dense than the
melt are forced to the inner
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surface of the casting by the
centrifugal forces.
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 This impure zone is then
removed by machining.
 used for manufacturing of

iron pipes, bushings, wheels,
pulleys bi-metal steel-bronze
bearings and other parts
possessing axial symmetry.
B. SEMI-CENTRIFUGAL CASTING
Centrifugal force is used to produce solid castings rather
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than tubular parts
 Molds are designed with risers at center to supply feed
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metal
 Density of metal in final casting is greater in outer
sections than at center of rotation
 Often used on parts in which center of casting is
machined away, thus eliminating the portion where
quality is lowest
 The process is suitable for large axis-symmetrical
castings like gear blanks, fly wheels and track wheels.
SEMI-CENTRIFUGAL CASTING
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C. CENTRIFUGE CASTING
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Mold is designed with part cavities located away
from axis of rotation, so that molten metal
poured into mold is distributed to these cavities
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by centrifugal force
 Used for smaller parts
 Radial symmetry of part is not required as in

other centrifugal casting methods
The process is
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used on parts in
which the center of
the casting is
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machined away,
such as wheels and
pulleys.
Centrifuge Casting
CONTINUOUS CASTING
 Continuous casting is a casting method, in which the steps
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of pouring, solidification and withdrawal (extraction) of the
casting from an open end mold are carried out continuously.
 Cross-sectional dimensions of a continuous casting are
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constant along the casting length and they are determined
only by the dimensions of the mold cavity.
 The length of a continuous casting is limited by the life time of
the mold.
 Continuous casting technology is used for both ferrous and
non-ferrous alloys.
Depending on the mold position (vertical or horizontal)
continuous casting machines may be vertical or horizontal:
 Vertical continuous casting
 Horizontal continuous casting

VERTICAL CONTINUOUS CASTING
 Molten metal is continuously supplied from the ladle
to the intermediate ladle (tundish) from which it is
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continuously poured into the mold at a controllable
rate keeping the melt level at a constant position.
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 The water-cooled copper mold (primary cooling
zone) extracts the heat of the metal causing its
solidification. The mold oscillates in order to prevent
sticking with the casting.
 When the casting goes out from the mold it is cooled in
the secondary cooling zone by water (or water with
air) sprayed on the casting surface.
 The casting is continuously extracted from the mold
by the withdrawal unit followed by a cut-off unit.
 Then a molten metal is poured into the mold where it
solidifies and grips the end of the dummy bar.
HORIZONTAL CONTINUOUS CASTING
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 Horizontal continuous casting machine is
generally used for casting non-ferrous alloys.
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 Horizontal continuous casting in stationary mold
with graphite water-cooled molds, Twin-roll
caster and Twin-belt caster are most popular
methods of this type.
 Due to the water cooling (primary and secondary)
solidification rate provided by continuous casting
is higher than in other casting methods therefore
continuous castings have more uniform and finer
grain structure and enhanced mechanical
properties.
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IND
WA
SEK
AR
COMPARISON OF CASTING PROCESSES
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ADDITIONAL STEPS AFTER
SOLIDIFICATION
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 Trimming
 Removing the core
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 Surface cleaning
 Inspection
 Repair, if required
 Heat treatment
TRIMMING
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Removal of sprues, runners, risers, parting-line
flash, fins, chaplets, and any other excess metal
from the cast part
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 For brittle casting alloys and when cross sections
are relatively small, appendages can be broken
off
 Otherwise, hammering, shearing, hack-sawing,
band-sawing, abrasive wheel cutting, or various
torch cutting methods are used
REMOVING THE CORE
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If cores have been used, they must be removed
 Most cores are bonded, and they often fall out of
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casting as the binder deteriorates
 In some cases, they are removed by shaking
casting, either manually or mechanically
 In rare cases, cores are removed by chemically
dissolving bonding agent
 Solid cores must be hammered or pressed out
CLEANING AND FINISHING
1. Casting is taken out of the mould by shaking and the
Moulding sand is recycled often with suitable additions.
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2. The remaining sand, some of which may be embedded
in the casting, is removed by means of Shot blasting.
The excess material in the form of sprue, runners, gates
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3.
etc., along with the flashes formed due to flow of molten
metal into the gaps is broken manually in case of brittle
casting or removed by sawing and grinding in case of
ductile grinding.
4. The entire casting is then cleaned by either shot
blasting or chemical pickling.
5. Sometimes castings are heat treated to achieve better
mechanical properties.
SURFACE CLEANING
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Removal of sand from casting surface and
otherwise enhancing appearance of surface
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 Cleaning methods: tumbling, air-blasting with
coarse sand grit or metal shot, wire brushing,
buffing, and chemical pickling
 Surface cleaning is most important for sand
casting
 In many permanent mold processes, this step
can be avoided
 Defects are possible in casting, and inspection is
needed to detect their presence
HEAT TREATMENT
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 Castings are often heat treated to enhance
properties
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 Reasons for heat treating a casting:
 For subsequent processing operations such as

machining
 To bring out the desired properties for the
application of the part in service
CASTING QUALITY
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 There are numerous opportunities for things to
go wrong in a casting operation, resulting in
quality defects in the product
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 The defects can be classified as follows:
 General defects common to all casting

processes
 Defects related to sand casting process
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Casting defects
Surface Internal Visible defects
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Defect Defect
Blow Blow holes Wash
Scar Porosity Rat tail
Blister Pin holes Swell
Drop Inclusions Misrun
Scab Dross Cold shut
Penetration Hot tear
Buckle Shrinkage/Shift
Casting Defects: Misrun
A casting that has solidified before completely
filling mold cavity
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Casting Defects: Cold Shut
Two portions of metal flow together but there is a lack of fusion due
to premature freezing
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Casting Defects: Cold Shot
Metal splatters during pouring and solid globules form and
become entrapped in casting
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Casting Defects: Shrinkage Cavity
Depression in surface or internal void caused by

solidification shrinkage that restricts amount of molten
metal available in last region to freeze
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Sand Casting Defects: Sand Blow/ blow holes
Balloon-shaped gas cavity caused by release of mold gases during
pouring
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Sand Casting Defects: Pin Holes and porosity
Blow holes are large spherical shaped gas bubbles, while porosity
indicates a large number of uniformly distributed tiny holes. Pin
holes are tiny blow holes appearing just below the casting surface.
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Sand Casting Defects: Hot tears
 Hot tears are ragged irregular internal or external cracks occurring
immediately after the metal have solidified.
 Hot tears occur on poorly designed castings having abrupt section
changes or having no proper fillets or corner radii. Wrongly placed
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chills.
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Sand Casting Defects: Penetration
When fluidity of liquid metal is high, it may penetrate into sand mold
or core, causing casting surface to consist of a mixture of sand
grains and metal
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Sand Casting Defects: Mold Shift/ Mismatch
A step in cast product at parting line caused by sidewise
relative displacement of cope and drag
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Sand Casting Defects: Sand Inclusions
Inclusions are the non-metallic particles in the metal

matrix, Lighter impurities appearing the casting surface
are dross.
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Sand Casting Defects: Scabs
 Scabs are rough, irregular projections on surface of
castings containing embedded sand.
 Scabs occur when a portion on the face of mould or core
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lifts and metal flows underneath in a thin layer.
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Sand Casting Defects: Scar and Blister
 Scar is shallow blow generally occurring on a flat

surface. A scar covered with a thin layer of metal
is called blister.
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Sand Casting Defects: Rat tails
Rat tail is a long, shallow, angular depression caused

by expansion of the sand
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Sand Casting Defects: Drop
 Drop is an irregularly-shaped projection on the

cope surface caused by dropping of sand.
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Sand Casting Defects: Wash and swell
 Wash is a low projection near the gate caused by erosion of

sand by the flowing metal. Swell is the deformation of
vertical mould surface due to hydrostatic pressure caused by
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moisture in the sand.
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CLASSIFICATION OF CASTING DEFECTS
Casting defects
Surface Internal Defect Visible defects
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Defect
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Blow Blow holes Wash
Scar Porosity Rat tail
Blister Pin holes Swell
Drop Inclusions Misrun
Scab Dross Cold shut
Penetration Hot tear
Buckle Shrinkage/Shift
SURFACE DEFECTS
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 These are due to poor design and quality of sand
molds and general cause is poor ramming
 Blow is relatively large cavity produced by gases
which displace molten metal from convex surface.
Scar is shallow blow generally occurring on a flat
surface. A scar covered with a thin layer of metal is
called blister. These are due to improper permeability
or venting. Sometimes excessive gas forming
constituents in moulding sand
 Drop is an irregularly-shaped projection on the cope surface
caused by dropping of sand.
 A scab when an up heaved sand gets separated from the
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mould surface and the molten metal flows between the
displaced sand and the mold.
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 Penetration occurs when the molten metal flows between the
sand particles in the mould. These defects are due to
inadequate strength of the mold and high temperature of the
molten metal adds on it.
 Buckle is a vee-shaped depression on the surface of a flat
casting caused by expansion of a thin layer of sand at the
mould face. A proper amount of volatile additives in
moulding material could eliminate this defect by providing
room for expansion.
INTERNAL DEFECTS
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 The internal defects found in the castings are mainly due to
trapped gases and dirty metal. Gases get trapped due to
hard ramming or improper venting. These defects also
occur when excessive moisture or excessive gas forming
materials are used for mould making.
 Blow holes are large spherical shaped gas bubbles, while
porosity indicates a large number of uniformly distributed
tiny holes. Pin holes are tiny blow holes appearing just
below the casting surface.
 Inclusions are the non-metallic particles in the metal
matrix, Lighter impurities appearing the casting surface
are dross.
VISIBLE DEFECTS
 Insufficient mould strength, insufficient metal, low pouring
temperature, and bad design of casting are some of the
common causes.
 Wash is a low projection near the gate caused by erosion of
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sand by the flowing metal. Rat tail is a long, shallow, angular
depression caused by expansion of the sand. Swell is the
deformation of vertical mould surface due to hydrostatic
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pressure caused by moisture in the sand.
 Misrun and cold shut are caused by insufficient superheat
provided to the liquid metal.
 Hot tear is the crack in the casting caused by high residual
stresses.
 Shrinkage is essentially solidification contraction and occurs
due to improper use of Riser.
 Shift is due to misalignment of two parts of the mould or
incorrect core location.
INSPECTION OF CASTINGS
 Inspections may be in process inspections or finished product
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inspections.
 In process inspections are carried out before a lot of castings
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have been completed to detect any flaws that may have
occurred in the process so that corrective measures can be
taken to remove the defect in the remaining units.
 Finished product inspections are carried out after the castings
have all been completed to make sure that the product meets
the requirements specified by the customer.
 Two types of methods- destructive or non-destructive
 Destructive methods generally relate to sawing or
breaking off of parts of the castings at places where
voids or internal defects are suspected. Castings may
also be damaged during strength tests.
The prominent non destructive methods
VISUAL INSPECTION:
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 It consists of inspecting the
surface of the casting with
naked eye or sometimes with
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a magnifying glass or
microscope.
 It can only indicate surface
defects such as blow holes,
fusion, swells, external cracks,
and mismatch.
 Almost all castings are
subjected to certain degree of
visual inspection.
DIMENSIONAL INSPECTION
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 Dimensional inspection
is carried out to make
sure that the castings
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produced have the
required overall
dimensions including
allowances for
machining.
 It may sometimes be
necessary to break a
part of the casting to
take measurements of
inside dimensions.
SOUND TEST
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 This is a rough test to indicate a flaw or discontinuity
in a casting.
 The casting is suspended from a suitable support free
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of all obstructions and tapped at various places on its
surface with a small hammer.
 Any change in the tone produced indicates the
existence of a flaw.
 The method cannot indicate the exact location and
extent of the discontinuity.
IMPACT TEST
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 In this test the casting is
subjected to a blow from a
hammer of known weight
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striking or falling on the
casting.
 Defective castings fail
under the impact of the
blow but the method is
very crude and unreliable.
PRESSURE TEST
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 This test is carried out on castings
required to be leak proof. All
openings of the castings are closed
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and a gas or fluid under pressure
is introduced in it.
 Castings having porosity leak
under this pressure. The leakage
may be detected by submerging the
casting in a water tank or using a
soap film if the pressure is applied
by compressed air.
 If a liquid is used for applying
pressure the leakage can be found
by visual inspection.
RADIOGRAPHY:
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 Radiography uses X-rays or
gamma rays penetrating
through the castings and
MILIND WASEKAR
giving a shadow picture on a
photographic film placed
behind the work piece.
 Any defects in the casting can
easily be identified from this
picture.
 Because of their shorter wave
length gamma rays have a
better penetration through
the metal and are more
commonly used.
MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING:
5/16/2019
 This test is used for detecting
cracks in metals like cast iron and
steel which can be magnetized.
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 For carrying out the test the
casting is magnetized and then fine
particles of iron or steel are spread
on its surface.
 Presence of a crack or void in the
casting results in interruption of
the magnetic field and leakage of
magnetic flux at the place of the
crack.
 Very small cracks or voids at or
near the surface which may not
even be detected by radiography
are easily revealed by this method.
PENETRANT TESTING:
5/16/2019
 This method also is used for
detecting very small surface cracks
and has the advantage over the
magnetic particle method that it can
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be used for any material.
 The parts to be tested are either
dipped into or covered with a
penetrant testing liquid which has
very good wetting and penetrating
ability.
 The liquid is drawn into the cracks or
voids by capillary action.
 After the penetrant has been applied

to the surface to be tested extra
penetrant is wiped off the surface is
dried and a developer applied to it.
ULTRASONIC TESTING:
5/16/2019
 Ultrasonic testing is used to detect
defects like cracks, voids or porosity
within the interior of the casting.
The method uses reflection and
MILIND WASEKAR

transmission of high frequency sound
waves.
 Ultrasonic sound waves much higher
than the audible range are produced and
made to pass through the casting.
 Any crack or void in the casting results
in reflection or some of the sound from
the crack which appears as a pip
between the two pips representing the
thickness of the casting.
 The depth of the crack from the surface
of the casting can be easily calculated
from the distance between these pips.

M - I U - 1 C P: Anufacturing Processes NIT Asting Rocesses

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MANUFACTURING PROCESSES-I

Extrusion Centrifugal Bending Blow molding Boring Anodizing Automated

Ancient Greece; bronze

 Casting is a process in which molten metal flows into a mold

 In some cases casting is the only method of shaping a

 Sand casting, the most widely used casting process,

 The sand casting process involves the use of a furnace,

The quality of the castings produced depends on the design of the

 (ii) to provide enough metal for the subsequence machining

1. Number of castings to be produced.

 The common materials used for making patterns are wood,

Pattern properties are

Advantages of wooden patterns

 i). Cast Iron

 The plastics used for this purpose are thermosetting

 preferable for producing highly intricate casting.

 The commonly used waxes are paraffin wax,

 used in the process of investment casting where

1. One piece or solid pattern

 2. Self core pattern

 4. Loose piece pattern

 In the match plate pattern, however, each of the parts

 This pattern consists of a thin cylindrical or curved metal

Eg. Investment casting

 The size of a pattern is never kept the same as that of

 Cast Iron 10 mm/m.

In fact, there is a special rule known as the pattern

 It is a positive allowance given to compensate for the

 Actually by rapping, the external sections move

 This movement may be insignificant in the case of

 small and medium size castings, but it is significant in

 This allowance is applied to the castings which have

 The core is normally a disposable item that is

Cores are classified according to shape and position

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 Both in cope and

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 Corehangs from cope

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Ram-up Kiss core

Fig. Balancing core

 Core making basically is carried out in four

 3. core baking and

 It is special kind of molding sand.

3. Core drawing machines

 Once the cores are prepared, they will be baked in a

 After baking of cores, they are smoothened using dextrin

1. GREEN SAND CORES

 Any kind of hollowness in form of holes and recesses in

 They form the complete core by only one ramming.

 The two parts of core boxes are held in position by

 In this practice, the color identification is as follows.

 In order for this mold to be functional to manufacture a

Figure . Illustrates the

 The shrinkage for stage 3 is compensated by providing

 The general sources of receiving molding sands are the

 Whereas synthetic molding sands are prepared