ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

15ES192
ENVIRONMENT
 Definition-it means surroundings in which
organisms live.it is the sum total of all the biotic as
well as abiotic components

 “Sum of all social,economical,biological,physical or

chemical factors which constiute the surroundings
of a man, who is creator as well as moulder of the
environment”
 SCOPE
OF ENVIRONMENTAL
STUDIES
 ECO-SYSTEM
 Ecosystem is defined as any unit that includes all of the
organisms in a given area interacting with the physical
environment so that flow of energy leads to clearly defined
trophic structures, biotic diversity and material cycles within
the environment.

Two kinds of eco system

 Terrestrial eco system
 Aquatic ecosystem
Terrestrial ecosystem is classified into
 Forest eco system

 Tropical evergreen forest

They receive a very heavy rainfall of over 1000 mm annually,these forests are
classified by dense vegetation which comprises of tall trees at different
heights.

 Tropical deciduous forests

shrubs and dense bushes rule, a very large variety of flora and fauna are
found here

 Temperate evergreen forest

 Temperate deciduous forests

 Taiga
temperature is below 0 degrees for almost half a year
THE DESERT ECO SYSTEM
 Rainfall less than 100-50 mm

 Occupy 17% of all the land on our planet

 Flora and fauna are scarce and are poorly developed

 Trees and plants have modified themselves to conserve water

as much as possible-xerophytic vegetation

 The animals include insects, birds, camels and repiles

 THE GRASSLAND ECO SYSTEM
 They are located in tropical regions as well as temperate
regions of the world though the ecosystems vary slightly
 The main vegetation includes grasses,plants and legumes
that belong to the composite family.
 The two main kinds of grassland ecosystems include
Savannahs and prairies
 MOUNTAIN ECOSYSTEM
 They are home to a very diverse array of habitats where a
large number of animals and plants can be found.

 At the higher altitudes the harsh environmental conditions

normally prevail and only treeless alpine vegetation can
survive

 The animals have adapted to the extreme weather conditions

here
 AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS
 Encompasses aquatic flora and fauna and aquatic
properties as well
 Two main types are marine and fresh water
ecosystem
Marine ecosystems and fresh water ecosystems
 MARINE ECOSYSTEMS
 Oceanic ecosystem
 Profundal ecosystem
 Benthic ecosystem
 Inter-tidal
 Estuaries
 Coral reefs
many kind of organisms live in marine ecosystems
they are brown
algae,corals,cephalophods,echinoderms etc
 FRESH WATER ECOSYSTEM
They cover only 0.8% of earth’s surface and contains
0.009% of the total water
 Lentic: slow moving or till water like lakes and

ponds

 Lotic: fast moving water like streams and rivers

 Wetlands: places in which the soil is inundated or

saturated for some lengthy period or time
 BALANCED - ECOSYSTEM
The stable eco system represents a dynamic balance
among numerous factors of biotic potential and
environmental resistance
The factors responsible for the balanced ecosystem
are
 balance between predators and prey

 balance between vegetation, herbivores and

carnivores
 Balance between competing species and balance

with a biotic factors

 STRUCTURE OF AN ECO SYSTEM
 The component of biological community including species,
biomass, life history and distribution in space

 The quantity and distribution of non living materials like

nutrients,water etc

 The conditions of existence such as temperature light etc

 The structure of an ecosystem is therefore characterized by

organization of biotic and abiotic components
 NUTRIENT CYCLING

It is the movement of the chemical elements from the

environment into living organisms and from them back into
the environment as the organisms live,grow,die and
decompose.
ENERGY FLOW IN AN ECOSYSTEM

producers consumers
sun

Inorganic
nutrient decomposers
pool
 HUMAN ACTIVITIES
 Basic needs of the human beings include food,clothing,shelter and
energy requirements which are met from the environmental
resources in the ecosystem consisting of water air and land
 Humans should carefully use these resources and preserve this for
our future generation

some basic facts

• Matter cannot be generated afresh.it should be recycled and reused

to the possible extent

• Energy is converted from one form to another but some percentage

is lost into environment.

• Never treat the environment as the market, resources as the
commodity,population as the consumer and total system as buisness
 Increase in poulation leads to:
• Increasing demand of resources
• Generation of wastes
• Release of harmful chemicals into biosphere
• Ecosystem disturbances
• Reduction in biodiversity
• Depletion and degradation of resources
FOOD
 Global food supply has improved enormously since the early 1960s

 The agricultural sector on average has kept up with population

growth and demand for agriculture produce

 World grain production (mainly wheat,corn and rice) has shown an

upward trend ,with exceptions of slight fluctuations in some years
primarily due to drought and other natural disasters

 The slogan “more crop per drop” explains the objective to be

achieved by ICID member countries, particularly those that have
nearly reached full development of their scarce water resources
 MAJOR FOOD CROPS IN
INDIA
RABI CROPS KHARIF CROPS ZAID CROPS
WHEAT millets WATER MELON
BARLEY COTTON,SOYABEAN, PUMPKIN
SUGARCANE
MUSTARD SOYABEAN,MAIZE BITTER GOURD
TURMERIC, PADDY
PEAS etc… GROUNDNUT,RED RIDGED GOURD
CHILLIES
 FOOD SECURITY
 The following three conditions must be fulfilled to ensure
food security

• food must be available

• Each person must have access to it
• The food utilized must fulfill nutritional requirements
 AVAILABILITY
 Global food security requires sufficient food production to
provide the world’s people with the amount of food they need
to lead active and healthy lives

 Domestic production depends on the size of the area

harvested and the yields achieved and are heavily influenced
by water , especially where irrigation is non existent
 UTILIZATION
 Adequate food utilization is the key component of food
security

 In 1996 world leaders assembled in rome for world food

summit to renew the global commitment to fight against
hunger

 Food insecurity is not just related to food production. It is

closely related to poverty and economic stagnation
 SHELTER
 Shelter or the habitat refers to physical and chemical factors
of the place where the organisms live

 The more specific these needs and localized the habitat ,the
greater the vulnerability of species to loss of habitat to
agricultural land, livestock, roads and cities

 Tropical forests is home to more than 50% of the world’s

biodiversity

 Environmental fluctuations ,disease and other chance factors

make many species highly vulnerable to extinction
 ABIOTIC COMPONENTS
 The abiotic components of an ecosystem include the non living
constituents of the environment i.e, habitat
 Soil and water form the media as well as important abiotic
factors which can be broadly divided into two categories

 PHYSICAL FACTORS
• Light
• Temperature
• Evaporation and precipitation
• Gravity
• Pressure
• Humidity
• Air and water currents
 CHEMICAL COMPONENTS
 Oxygen
 Carbon di oxide
 Mineral(nutrients)
 Organic matter
SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC SECURITY
 The biotic environment of an individual is made up of
members of the same or other species.

 Intraspecific interactions is all because to compete for

resources such as food and shelter,light ,nutrients and space
 AGRICULTURE
 It is critical to understand the degree to which
agriculturally related activities may contribute
to global scale environmental change
ADVERSE EFFECTS OFAGRICULTURE
The direct impacts of agriculture on the environment include

 Soil degradation
 Water contamination
 Modification of land for agricultural purposes
 SOIL DEGRADATION
 It is the decline in the quantity and quality of
a soil erosion, acidification, salinization and
contamination
 SOIL EROSION
 Soil erosion refers to a series of processes leading to soil
depletion in situ and export of sediments to downstream

 Some degradation activities like overgrazing of cropland and

shifting cultivation, seawaves, wind, glaciers, water can cause
soil erosion

 Also human activities like urbanizayion, industrialization,

deforestation etc., add to soil erosion

 Geological process acting continuosly add to lead to natural

loss of soil
BAD EFFECTS OF SOIL
EROSION
 Soil loss-according to an estimate, about 6000 metric tonnes
of top soil is lost by wind and water erosion every year

 Loss of nutrients- removal of top soil by wind erosion also

causes loss of plant nutrients and thus productive lands are
turned unproductive

 Vegetation-a long term effect on vegetation is the enrichment

of the organic matter of the soil. Frequent tillage operations
or other sources of disturbances such as overgrazing heavily
makes the soil erodible
 Land levelling-farmers started to adapt plants
and slope morphology of their needs. This is
done byulevelling the land
 Wild fire – a forest wildfire is the dramatic
change that modifies soil physiothermal
parameters and soil behavior
 REMEDIES
 Land should be covered by vegetation always

 Conserving the soil moisture by increasing infiltration,

reducing evaporation, terracing, mulching etc

 Plantation of wind breaks and shelter bells

 Diversion of channels to direct water to sites where it can be

disposed of safely

 Sediment basins can be built to intercept and retain water

carrying soil particles
 WATER CONTAMINATION
 The water bodies are increasingly threatened by
contamination. Agricultural practices like fertilizer application
and pesticides contaminate the water to a large effect

 Contaminated water percoalates downwards through farm

fields , carrying with it dissolved chemicals which include
nitrate fertilizers and soluble pesticides to reach ground
water
 Worldwide, according to a UNEP study (Groundwater its susceptibility to
degradation, 2003), over 2 B people depend on aquifers for their drinking
water. 40 per cent of the world’s food is produced by irrigated agriculture
that relies largely on groundwater.
 Groundwater constitutes about 95 per cent of the freshwater on our planet
(discounting that

 locked in the polar ice caps), making it fundamental to human life and
economic development.

 Characteristics By its very nature, groundwater has some important

characteristics:

 It is almost universally available, with variation in levels, quality and quantity

 It is a common property resource as no single person or organization can

own it.
 However, the way it is used, it has become a totally private property.
According to current regime and legal situation, those who own the land have
total freedom to use as much groundwater as required.
 Groundwater in India According to the report of the National
Commission on Integrated Water resources Development (GOI
Sept 1999), the total replenishable ground water is estimated
as 432 BCM. Out of this, 396 BCM is considered utilizable –
71 BCM (15%) for domestic, industrial and other uses and 325
BCM (90% of the balance) for irrigation.

 Groundwater potential of various riveres-Ganga river has the

largest ground water potential in India (171 cubic km/year),
river Krishna in south India has the largest ground water
potential(41 cubic km/year)
 STATES REPLENISHABLE REPLENISHABLE TOTAL ANNUAL
GW FROM GW DUE TO REPLENISHABLE
NATURAL RECHARGE GW
RECHARGE FROM CANAL
ANDHRA 20.03 15.26 35.29
PRADESH
ARUNACHAL 1.44 0 1.44
PRADESH
ASSAM 24.23 0.49 24.72

BIHAR 28.31 5.21 33.52

GOA 0.18 0.03 0.21

GUJARAT 16.38 4.0 20.38

KARNATAKA 14.18 2.01 16.19

 PROBLEMS WITH
FERTILIZERS
 The three major nutrients in fertilizers are nitrogen, phosphorous and
potassium

 Of these nitrogen is highly soluble in water, leaching of nitrate into

ground water can elevate the nitrate levels unacceptable to drinking
water quality

 High nitrate levels is considered to be dangerous to human health

 High amount of Phosphrous can trigger excessive algae growth

 Pottasium is not hazardous for drinking water

 BAD EFFECTS
 The excessive use of pesticides and herbicides have depleted
the population of ecologically important soil micro organization

 Many of the pesticides are non degradable they enter food chain
and becomes hazardous to human life

 Many pesticides are broad spectrum which not only kill the
target pest but also kills the non target pests that are useful for
us

 Eutrophication of lakes, rivers and water bodies are taking place

due to nutrient run off and it reduces the fishery production and
agricultural production
 REMEDIES
 Highly controlled use of fertilizers

 Use of an ideal pesticide which,

• Kills only the target pest,
• Has no short or long term health effects on non target
organisms, including people,
• Can be broken down into harmless chemicals ina a failrly short
time
• Prevents the development of genetic resistance in target pest

 Crop rotation, in which types of crops planted in field are

changed from year to year so that the population of pest that
attack a particular crop can be avoided

 Destroying diseased or infected plants

 WATER LOGGING
 It is the inability of water to move on irrigated land resulting
in accumulation of water in root zone of plants

 It occurs when soil is overirrigated. Generally it occurs in the

areas where there is clayey soil or having an impermeable
clayey layer beneath

 The soil root zone becomes saturated it cannot absorb

enough oxygen to breathe and plants stop growing within a
few days and die

 Other gases like ethylene and co2 may accumulate around

the roots of plants and they may affect the plants
 REMEDIES
 Over irrigation has to be avoided on the same
cropland throughout the year

 Reducing irrigation on the clayey soils

 By proper utility of water in storage reservoirs

 Trickle irrigation or the dripn irrigation reduces the

percoalation and evaporative losses together with
the water logging
 MODIFICAION OF LAND
 Past conversion of tropical forests into agricultural lands is
estimated to have resulted in an average increase of
atmospheric co2.

 As much as 7 million hectares of closed tropical forests may

have been cleared annually for agriculture around 1980 and
an additional 4 million hectares of open woodland deforested
annually to meet agricultural demand.

 Also much deforestation and land conversion occurs through

burning of biomass, which releases CO 2, CO, N20, CH4and
other trace gases into atmosphere.
 Release of N2O are of particular concern because
N2O is not only a long lived and radio active trace
gas, but it is also a precursor to NO, a catalytic
species that is thought to play an important role is
depleting stratospheric ozone

 The sources of N2O vary widely, and it includes

mainly biomass burning.

 Emissions of CO are also important since CO reacts

with OH radicals in the atmosphere. OH radicals
help to cleanse the atmosphere of a variety of trace
gasses.
 ORGANIC FARMING
 It is basically farmng without any synthetic
pesticides and conventional fetilizers

 “An ecological production management system that

promotes and enhances biodiversity, biological
cycles and soil biological activity.

 It is based on minimal use of farm inputs and on

management practices that restore, maintain and
enhance ecological harmony
ADVANTAGES OF ORGANIC
FERTILIZERS
 Fertilizer products supplement the nutrients already in the
soil. Synthetic man made fertilizers are more concentrated.

 Not all the organic fertilizers are useful to plants immediately.

The soil must be warm enough for organic fertilizers to break
down and nutrients to be released.

 They are ecologically and environmentally safe –no toxins and

hence no pollution

 Provides constant flow of amino acids and fatty acids

wherever necessary
 Restores the depleted vitamin and mineral content to the soil

 Safe and easy to apply

 Eliminates environmental contamination-especially the

surface water and in many areas the underground water table

 Provides the necessary soil microorganisms-these organisms

assist with the manufacturing of organic matter and nitrogen
fixation products
KARNATAKA
 EFFECT OF BUILDING MATERIALS
 STEEL:- it is one of the single largest building metal used in
construction activity followed by Alluminium and Brass. Dust and
combustion emissions from ore refinement, basic blast furnace
emissions due to production of raw iron and steel add to the air
pollution.

 CEMENT:- cement and concrete composites are most commonly

used building materials

 Wood:- wood is one of the renewable resources. It is required to

be replanted faster than they are being harvested today, removal
of trees causes loss of biodiversity, ecological impact and soil
erosion. The effluents of wood industries contains resins,
adhesives and other polymers which are toxic to aquatic life
CEMENT COMPOSITION
 GLASS:- Mining of glass sand, limestone and soda
ash results in particulate pollution, soil erosion and
habitat alteration, pollutant runoff.

 PAINTS:-Paints manufacturing is one of the major

industry, most paints are majorily derived from
petroleum derived substances and heavy metals.
Paints emit organic solvents that may be irritating
and hazardous, hypo-allergic etc.
 INDUSTRIALIZATION
Environmental impact of industrialization

 Impact on natural resources

 Impact on air and water
IMPACT ON NATURAL RESOURCES
 USE OF FOSSIL FUELS:-many nations rely on fossil fuels for their
industry, transport, heat and light. The environmental effects of
the large scale consumption of these resources are alarming
ranging from local polution to global effects.

 OIL SPILLS:- even small spills can result in large scale damage. For
example, over 60% of the marine iguanas were killed on Santa fe
island in the Galapagos within a months of a relatively small oil
spill in 2001.

 MINING:- in addition to depletion of mineral resources consumed

by industries mining has a significant environmental impact by
destroying habitat, polluting and degrading streams and
waterways. Mining also leads to road building and surface mining.
These activities destroys surface ecosystem.
 IMPACT ON AIR AND WATER
 Solid liquid and gaseous wates are released into the
atmosphere from various processing industries.

 They vary from industry to industry depending upon raw

materials used and manufacturing process.

 Domestic wastes have neutral PH and exert an oxygen

demand of 200mg/l. but the liquid effluents from an industry
may be extremely acidic or alkaline in nature.
 REMEDIES
 Industries must completely treat all types of
generated wastes as per the prescribed standards
before disposal outside their factory limits.

 If necessary, polluting industries should be closed

or shifted far away from the human environment.

 Law should take it’s own course while controlling

pollution level.
MINING
  is the extraction of valuable minerals or other geological
materials from the earth from an ore.

 Ores recovered by mining include metals, coal, oil shale, 

gemstones, limestone, dimension stone, rock salt, potash, 
gravel, and clay. Mining is required to obtain any material
that cannot be grown through agricultural processes, or
created artificially in a laboratory or factory. Mining in a wider
sense includes extraction of any non-renewable resource
 such as petroleum, natural gas, or even water.

 The most significant impact occurs during the operational

phases and also after active operations have ceased
 IMPACTS OF MINING
 WATER POLLUTION:-

 Open pit mining generates enormous amount of wastes.

DAKSHINA PINAKINI RIVER
 EROSION:-Erosion and sedimentation present
another environmental issue for mine sites.
When the material is disturbed in significant
quantities, as it is in the mining process,
large quantities of sediments are transported
by water erosion.

 DEFORESTATION:-damage to forest cover is

smaller in scale and more localized for
mining locations than for logging locations
OTHER MINING IMPACTS
 TRANSPORTATION
 Transportation is movement of people and goods
from one place to another. The direct affects of
transportation results from construction and use of
transportation systems.

 The most important impacts of transport on the

environment relate to climate change, air quality,
noise, water quality, soil quality, biodiversity.
CLIMATE CHANGE
 AIR QUALITY
 Emissions of SO2, CO, NO2……toxic air
pollutants are associated with cancer,
cardiovascular, respiratory and neurological
diseases
NOISE POLLUTION
 WATER QUALITY
 TRANSPORT ACTIVITIES have an impact on
hydrological conditions. Fuel, chemical and
other hazardous particulates discarded from
aircraft, cars, trucks and trainsor from port
and airport terminal operations
 ENVIRONMENT IMPACT
ASSESEMENT
 EIA is a planning tool which assists planners in anticipating future impact of
different developmental activities, both beneficial and adverse with a view to select
the optimal alternative

 The purpose of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is to identify and evaluate

the potential impacts(beneficial and adverse)of development and projects on the
environmental system.It is an useful aid for decision making based on
understanding of the environment implications including social, cultural and
aesthetic concerns which could be integrated with the analysis of the project costs
and benifits.This exercise should be undertaken early enough in the planning
stage of projects for selection of environmentally compatible sites,process
technologies and such other environmental safeguards.

 While all industrial projects may have some environmental impacts all of them may
not be significant enough to warrant elaborate assessment procedures. The need
for such exercises will have to be decided after initial evaluation of the possible
implications of a particular project and its location.The projects which could be the
candidates for detailed Environment Impact Assessment include the following:-
• Those which can significantly alter the landscape,land use pattern and
lead to concentration of working and service population;

• Those which need upstream development activity like assured mineral

and forest products supply or downstream industrial process
development;

• Those involving manufacture,handling and use of hazardous materials;

• Those which are sited near ecologically sensitive areas,urban centers,

hill resorts,places of scientific and religious importance.

• Industrial Estates with constituent units of various types which could

cumulatively cause significant environmental damage.
 The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) should be prepared on the basis
of the existing background pollution levels vis-a-vis contributions of
pollutants from the proposed plant.The EIA should address some of the basic
factors listed below:

 Meteorology and air quality

 Ambient levels of pollutants such as Sulphur Dioxide,oxides of nitrogen,

carbonmonoxide,suspended particulate matters,should be determined at the
center and at 3 other locations on a radius of 10 km with 120 degrees angle
between stations.Additional contribution of pollutants at the locations are required
to be predicted after taking into account the emission rates of the pollutants from
the stacks of the proposed plant,under different meteorological conditions
prevailing in the area.

 Hydrology and water quality

 Site and its surroundings
 Occupational safety and health
 Details of the treatment and disposal of effluents(liquid,air and solid) and the
methods of alternative uses
 Transportation of raw material and details of material handling
 Control equipment and measures proposed to be adopted
 ENVIRONMENTAL PARAMETERS
MEASURED
 Air
 Water
 Land
 Ecology
 Sound
 Resoursces(fuel resource, non fuel resource)
 BENEFITS OF EIA
 The following is general overview of the many benefits offered
by effective EIA.

 Reduced cost and time of project implementation

 Cost saving modifications in project design increased project

performance

 Avoiding impacts and violations of laws and regulations

 Improved project performance

 Avoiding waste treatment/clean up excersises

UTTARKHAND FLOODS
PRIME OBJECTIVES OF EIA
 POPULATION

 PRUDENT USE OF RESOURCES

 POLLUTION CONTROL

 SOCIAL PROGRESS
NATURAL RESOURCES
WATER RESOURCES
 AVAILABLITY OF WATER

Around 70% of earth’s surface is water but

most of this is largely unavailable
Storage component Volume of water Total water(%)

OCEANS 1350400 97.6

ICE CAPS AND 26000 1.9

GLACIERS
GROUNDWATER AND 7150 0.5
SOIL MOISTURE
FRESH WATER LAKES 125 00.009

SALINE LAKES 105 0.008

RIVERS 1.7 0.001

 USE OF WATER
 PRODUCTIVE USE:- Agriculture is the largest single consumer of
fresh water, although it’s share of total use has declined significantly
during the past century and is expected to decline

 CONSUMPTION USE:- Water is consumed in exhaustive quantities

for domestic purposes. It includes drinking,washing,bathing,flushing
of water closets and domestic cattle requires high quality of water. It
is estimated to be around 3.5% of available fresh water.

 COMMERCIAL USE:-Water is used in various commercial activities,

wate finds its application in almost all processes in industries starting
from manufacturing to house keeping.
 WATER QUALITY
PARAMETERS DESIRABLE LIMIT ISI STANDARD
WATER QUALITY PARAMTERS AND
PH STANDARDS 6.5-8.5
6.5-8.0

NITRATE 45ppm 10ppm

FLUORIDE 1pppm 1.5pm

ARSENIC 0.05ppm 0.1ppm

IRON <0.3ppm 0.5ppm

LEAD <0.05ppm 0.01ppm

 Turbidity: turbidity in water mainly arises from colloidal matter,
fine suspended particles and soil erosion, generally greater the
turbidity, stronger is the sewage and he industrial effluent
concentrations and worst are the effects

 Non turbidity doesn’t mean that water is unpolluted , because

clear water may also be heavily contaminated with acids, alkalies
etc.,

 A maximum limit of 10 NTU (Nephelometric turbidity unit)

according to IS standards 2003 is allowed for turbidity

 Total hardness: temporary hardness and permanent hardness

 Most probable number (MPN):- water may contain
bacteria which are very small organisms.some bacteria
are called as pathogenic bacteria which causes dieseases like
cholera,typhoid,dysentery etc.

 The bacterial density which refers to bacteria content that is

most likely to be present in water is the “MOST PROBABLE
NUMBER”

 MPN in 100ml of any water sample should not be more than

10

 Total bacterial count should not be more than 106 per 100ml
QUALITY FOR RECREATION AND AESTHETICS

Surface water should be free from:-

 Materials which impart colour, taste or turbidity.

 Substances which may settle to form objectionable deposits or float on

the surface as debris, oil and scum

 Toxic substances including radionuclides, which are harmful to man,

fish or other aquatic plants or animals

 Substance which are likely to result in promoting growth of undesirable

aquatic life
QUALITY FOR AQUATIC LIFE, FISH AND WILD
LIFE
Surface water should be free from

 Settling matter which inhibits the growth of floras and biota.

 Substances which may settle to form objectionable deposits

or float on the surface as debris,oil and scum.

 Temperature should be not raised by 3 to 5 degree farheint

by hot waste water, while pH should be within the limits
 WATER BORNE DISEASES
 These diseases are are caused by water
contaminated by human,animal, or chemical wastes

 Worldwide, the lack of sanitary waste disposal and

of clean water for drinking,cooking and washing is
to be blamed for over 12million deaths a year.

 Water borne diseases include cholera, typhoid,

polio, meningitis and hepatitis A and E
POLIO
 MENINGITIS
 Meningitis is an acute inflammation of the protective membranes
covering the brain and spinal cord, known collectively as the
meninges.The inflammation may be caused by infection with viruses,
bacteria, or other microorganisms, and less commonly by certain
drugs. Meningitis can be life-threatening because of the
inflammation's proximity to the brain and spinal cord; therefore, the
condition is classified as a medical emergency.
 AGRICULTURAL CHEMICALS,
FERTILIZERS AND PESTICIDES
 Health problems from nitrates in water resources are becoming a
serious problem almost everywhere.

 Almost in over 150 nations, nitrates from fertilizers have seeped

into water wells, fouling the drinking water.

 Excessive nitrates and phosphorous causes blood disorder(bluebaby

syndrome), also high levels of phosphorous and nitrates encourages
growth of blue-green algae, leading to eutrophication.

 Pesticides such as DDT and heptachlor, which are used in

agriculture, they cause serious serious health effects like cancer and
many neurological diseases.
 PREVENTION AND
SOLUTION
 Improving the public sanitation and providing
clean water supply are the two steps needed
to prevent most water borne diseases and
deaths.

 In particular, constructing sanitary latrines

and treating waste water to allow for
biodegradation of human wastes will help
curb diseases caused by pollution.
FLUORIDE PROBLEM IN DRINKING
WATER
 SYMPTOMS OF FLUOROSIS
 Dental fluorosis, which is characterized by discoloured,
blackened, disfigured, mottled and chalky white teeth , is a
clear indication of overexposure to fluoride during childhood

 Chronic intake of excessive fluoride can lead to severe and

permanent bone joint deformations of skeletal fluorosis.

 Early symptons include stiffeness in joints, headache,

stomach ache and muscle weakness can also be warning
signs.

 The next stage is osteosclerosis and finally spine, major

joints and nervous system are damaged.
 MINERAL RESOURCES
 They can be broadly defined as elements, chemical compounds, minerals
or rocks that are concentrated in a form that can be extracted to obtain a
usable commodity. The finite stock of minerals on earth is non
renewable.

 Mineral per capita consumptionis obtained by dividing the amount of

resource actually processed by population. It is the better index of
standard of living of the population.

 The world per capita mining figures indicate tht five minerals are mined
to the maximum extent-coal, petroleum,iron ore, alluminium and
phosphate rock.

 The geographic distribution of minerals is unequal. Elements like

oxygen,silicon,alluminium,iron,calcium,sodium ,potassium accounts to
over 99% weight. Remainiung elements are found in trace concentration.
 WORLDWIDE RESOURCE DISTRIBUTION

RESOURCES RESERVE OCURRING PER CAPITA PER CAPITA

(tonnes) AS MINING COSUMPTION
AL 1.1х10^6 Al2O3nH2O 15.1kg 2.8

Cr 4.4х10^9 FeCr2O4 0.7kg 0.5

Coal 4.7х10^12 --------- 580kg 62.4

Fe 88х10^9 Fe2O3,Fe3O4 110kg 109

Lead 82х10^5 Pbs, PbCO3 3.8 kg 0.8

MINERAL RESOURCES IN
INDIA
  India's major mineral resources include Coal (4th largest 
reserves in the world) Iron ore, Manganese ore (7th largest 
reserve in the world as in 2013), Mica, Bauxite (5th largest 
reserve in the world as in 2013), Chromite, Natural gas, 
Diamonds, Limestone andThorium (world's largest along coast 
of Kerala shores). India's oil reserves, found in Bombay High
 off the coast of Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan and in 
eastern Assam meet 25% of the country's demand.

 A national level agency National Natural Resources 
Management System (NNRMS) was established in 1983 for 
integrated natural resources management in the country. It is 
supported by Planning Commission (India) and 
Department of Space.
 COPPER
 Copper  has  been  used  since  ancient  times.  Details  of  Copper 
mining  and  metallurgy  are  available  in  ancient  works  like 
Arthashastra.  Copper  is  mainly  used  in  Industrial  applications, 
Electrical/Electronic  equipments  and  Consumer  products  such  as 
utensils.  Major  resources  of  Copper  are  available  at Rajasthan, 
Madhya pradesh and Jharkhand. As on 2010, India had 1.56 billion 
tonnes  of  Copper  ore.[21] India  is  one  of  the  20  major  Copper 
producers.  In  2008,  India  produced  7,10,000  tonnes  of  copper. [22] 
Hindustan Copper Limited,  a  public  sector  company  is  the  only 
producer  of  primary  refined  copper.  Post-pillar  method  and  Blast 
hole  stoping  method  are  used  for  Mining.  Some  of  the  domestic 
demand is met through scrap recycling
 ZINC
 Zinc is a bluish-white, lustrous, diamagnetic metal. It is also a 
fair conductor of electricity. References to medicinal uses of 
zinc are present in the Charaka Samhita. Ancient Zinc smelting
 technique was found at a zinc production site in Zawar, 
Rajasthan. Zinc is recovered from a number of different zinc 
ores. The types of zinc ores include sulfide, carbonate, silicate 
and oxide.[23] It is used in corrosive resistant coating for Iron 
and Steel. Also used in Automotive, Electrical and Machinery 
industries. India is the World's fourth largest Zinc reserve as in 
2013.[24]Hindustan Zinc Limited is the main producer of Zinc in 
India. Most of the resources are available in Rajasthan. Minor 
amount of resources are available in Andhra Pradesh, Madhya 
Pradesh, Bihar and Maharashtra states. [23]
 IRON
 India is the World's third biggest exporter of Iron ore as in 2013. As on 
2010, India had 27 billion tonnes or resource (including Hematite and 
Magnetite). Major amount of Hematite is found in Orissa, Jharkhand, 
Chhattisgarh, Karnataka and Goa. Minor amount of Hematite is found in 
Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, 
Meghalaya, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. Major amount of Magnetite is 
found in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu. Minor 
amount of Magnetite is found in Assam, Bihar, Goa, Jharkhand, Kerala, 
Maharashtra, Meghalaya and Nagaland. Mining is done by opencast 
method. Iron ore is mainly used for manufacturing of Pig iron,Sponge
 iron and Steel. It is also used in coal washeries, cement and glass 
industries.[25] The public sector companies like 
National Mineral Development Corporation and Steel Authority of India
 contribute to 25% of the total production. Private companies including 
Tata Steel provides major contribution.
 URANIUM
 In Nalgonda District, the Rajiv Gandhi Tiger Reserve (the only tiger project 
in Andhra Pradesh) has been forced to surrender over 3,000 sq. 
kilometres to uranium mining, following a directive from the Central 
Ministry of Environment and Forests.

 In 2007, India was able to extract 229 tonnes of U 3O8 from its soil. On 19 
July 2011, Indian officials announced that the Tumalapalli mine in Andhra 
Pradesh state of India could provide more than 170,000 tonnes of 
uranium, making it as the world's largest uranium mine. Production of the 
ore is slated to begin in 2012.

 The Department of Atomic Energy  (DAE) recently discovered that the 
upcoming mine in Tumalapalli has close to 49,000 tonne of uranium 
reserves. This could just be a shot in the arm for India's nuclear power 
aspirations as it is three times the original estimate of the area's deposits.
 THORIUM
 The IAEA's 2005 report estimates India's reasonably assured 
reserves of thorium at 319,000 tonnes, but mentions recent 
reports of India's reserves at 650,000 tonnes. A government of 
India estimate, shared in the country's Parliament in August 
2011, puts the recoverable reserve at 846,477 tonnes. The 
Indian Minister of State V. Narayanasamy stated that as of 
May 2013, the country's thorium reserves were 11.93 million 
tonnes (monazite, having 9-10% ThO 2), with a significant 
majority (8.59 Mt; 72%) found in the three eastern coastal 
states of Andhra Pradesh (3.72 Mt; 31%), Tamil Nadu (2.46 
Mt; 21%) and Odisha (2.41 Mt; 20%) Both the IAEA and 
OECD appear to conclude that India may possess the largest 
share of world's thorium deposits.
 CARBON CYCLE
 The carbon cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which carbon is 
exchanged among the biosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere of the 
Earth. Along with the nitrogen cycleand the water cycle, the carbon cycle 
comprises a sequence of events that are key to making the Earth 
capable of sustaining life; it describes the movement of carbon as it is 
recycled and reused throughout the biosphere, including carbon sinks.

 The global carbon budget is the balance of the exchanges (incomes and 

losses) of carbon between the carbon reservoirs or between one specific 
loop (e.g., atmosphere <-> biosphere) of the carbon cycle. An 
examination of the carbon budget of a pool or reservoir can provide 
information about whether the pool or reservoir is functioning as a source 
or sink for carbon dioxide. The carbon cycle was initially discovered by 
Joseph Priestley and Antoine Lavoisier, and popularized by 
Humphry Davy.
 carbon enters the atmosphere as carbon dioxide from respiration
(breathing) and combustion (burning).

 Carbon dioxide is absorbed by producers (life forms that make

their own food e.g. plants) to make carbohydrates in
photosynthesis . These producers then put off oxygen.

 Animals feed on the plants. Thus passing the carbon compounds

along the food chain. Most of the carbon these animals consume
however is exhaled as carbon dioxide. This is through the process
of respiration. The animals and plants then eventually die.

 The dead organisms (dead animals and plants) are eaten by

decomposers in the ground. The carbon that was in their bodies is
then returned to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. In some
circumstances the process of decomposition is prevented. The
decomposed plants and animals may then be available as fossil
fuel in the future for combustion.
NITROGEN CYCLE
 NITROGEN CYCLE
 Ammonification

 Nitrification,

 Nitrogen uptake by plants,

 Fixation of Nitrogen, and

 Denitrification
 Ammonification:
Ammonification is a process in which the organic nitrogen of
plants and animals after their death is converted to ammonium
ions (NH4) by the action of saprotrophic fungi and bacteria. The
saprotrophs use the ammonia (NH3) to synthesize their own
proteins and other nitrogen-containing organic compounds.

 Nitrification:
Ammonium ions added to the soil by ammonification, are soon
oxidized by a process known as nitrification. It takes place in
two stages. In the first stage, ammonium (NH4+) is converted to
nitrite (NO2-). This reaction involves the addition of oxygen to
ammonia, giving rise to hydroxylamine (NH2OH), which is
further oxidized to nitrite. This reaction is completed by the
bacteria such as Nitrosomonas
 The second stage of nitrification involves the oxidation of
nitrite (NO2) to nitrate (NO3) by bacteria of the genera
Nitrobacter, Nitrospira and Nitrococcus. The reaction
proceeds by the addition of water followed by the
removal of hydrogen (Hamilton, 1988). The bacteria
responsible for these reactions occur in the same soil.

 Nitrogen uptake by Plants:

Nitrate (NO3–) formed in the process of nitrification is
used by most plants as a mineral metabolite and may be
converted by them into amino groups and other nitrogen-
containing compounds. Nitrates are also added to the soil
through rock dissolution and combination of atmospheric
nitrogen with oxygen by lightning (nitrates so formed
reach the soil by rain).
Fixation of Nitrogen:
 The reduction of atmospheric nitrogen (N 2) to the ammonium ion

(NH+4) is called nitrogen fixation. This process can only be

carried out by certain species of bacteria and cyanobacteria
(Postgate, 1988). Some of these bacteria are free-living, occurring
in soil or water (saprophytic bacteria like Azotobacter and
Clostridium ; others exist in symbiotic relationship with plants of
the Family Legxuninosae, e.g., nodule bacteria Rhizobium
leguminosarum).
 Species of the genus Rhizobium occur in the soil until they infect

a damaged epidermal cell or root hair. The plant responds to this

infection by producing root nodules, about 1 to 3 mm in
diameter. These root nodules contain leg hemoglobin, which
functioning like hemoglobin, transports oxygen.
 As these bacteria are aerobic, some oxygen is required for the

bacteria to survive, but too much oxygen inactivates the enzyme

nitrogenase that catalyses nitrogen fixation.
 A chemical element that occurs naturally as a pure element-
It is a abundant and a bright yellow crystalline solid when at
room temperature- An essential element of life that is vital
and widely used in the biochemical cycle

 Most of the Earth’s sulfur is tied up on rocks and salts buried

in the depths of the ocean.- Important in the functioning of
proteins and enzymes in plants and animals and is present in
proteins, amino acids, vitamins, and enzymes, necessary for
plants and animals
The essential steps of the sulphur cycle are:-

1. Mineralization of organic sulphur to the

inorganic form, hydrogen sulphide(H2S).

2. Oxidation of sulphide and elemental sulphur

(S) and related compounds to sulphate

3. Reduction of sulphate to sulphide.

4. Microbial immobilization of the Sulphur

compounds and subsequent incorporation into
the organic form of sulphur.