BASIC

THERMODYNAMICS

Course No : MEC 203

Credit : 4
Instructor :
Arif Md. Shahed Iqubal
Room No : 411
Cell No : 01712628808
 INTRODUCTION
AND
BASIC CONCEPTS
 Objectives
• Identify the unique vocabulary associated with
thermodynamics through the precise definition of basic
concepts to form a sound foundation for the development
of the principles of thermodynamics.
• Review the different unit systems.
• Explain the basic concepts of thermodynamics such as
system, state, equilibrium, process, cycle, quasi-static
process.
• Review concepts of temperature, temperature scales,
pressure, and absolute and gage pressure.
• Introduce an intuitive systematic problem-solving
technique.
 WHAT IS THERMODYNAMICS

 Thermodynamics comes from the Greek words therme and

dynamis. Therme means heat and dynamis means power.
Thermodynamics is the science of energy where we study
about the energy conversion between heat and mechanical
work, subsequently the macroscopic variables such as
temperature, volume and pressure etc.
 APPLICATION AREAS OF THERMODYNAMICS
All activities in nature involve some interaction between energy and matter;
thus, it is hard to imagine an area that does not relate to thermodynamics in
some manner.
APPLICATION AREAS OF THERMODYNAMICS
 DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
 Dimensions:
Any physical quantity can be characterized by dimensions.
For example, Length, mass are dimensions.

 Units:
The magnitudes assigned to the dimensions are called units.
For example, meter (m), kilogram(kg) are the units of length
and mass respectively.

 There are two types of units

 Fundamental Units
 Derived Units
 DIMENSIONS AND UNITS

 Fundamental Unit :
Every quantity is measured in terms of some arbitrary, but
internationally accepted units called fundamental units. Such
as meter(m) for length.

 Derived Unit :
The unit which are derived from the fundamental unit is called
derived unit.
We know weight = Mass X Gravitational acceleration
m
W  kg  2
S
kgm
W 
S2
 DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
• Keep in mind that you can not add or subtract different dimensions.

 The seven fundamental dimension and their units in SI

Sl No Dimension Units
1 Length Meter (m)
2 Mass Kilogram (kg)
3 Time Second (s)
4 Temperature Kelvin (K)
5 Electric current Ampere (A)
6 Amount of light Candela (cd)
7 Amount of matter Mole (mol)
 DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
System of Units

 There are four system of units which are commonly used and
universally recognized.
1. C.G.S Units : In this system the fundamental unit of length,
mass and time are centimeter, gram and second respectively.
This is also known as absolute unit or physicist’s unit.
2. F.P.S Units : In this system the fundamental units of length,
mass and time are foot, pound and second respectively.
3. M.K.S Unit : In this system the fundamental units of length,
mass and time are meter, kilogram and second respectively. It
is also known as gravitational or engineer’s unit
4. S.I Unit : The system of unit which is unified and
systematically constituted for international use is called S.I
unit.
 NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
 Newton’s First Law of Motion :
Every body remains in a state of rest or uniform motion (constant
velocity) unless it is acted upon by an external unbalanced force.

 Newton’s Second Law of Motion :

The rate of change of momentum is directly proportional to the
impressed force and takes place in the same direction in which the force
acts.
Mathematically dmv
F 
dT
dv
F m
dT
F  ma

 Newton’s Third Law of Motion :

To every action, there is always an equal and opposite reaction.
 BASIC DEFINITION
 Mass : It is the amount of matter
contained in a given body and does not
vary with the change in its position on the
earth’s surface.
 Weight : The vertical force exerted by a
mass as a result of gravity. This force is
the product of the mass m of the object
and the local gravitational acceleration g
expressed in a formula: W = mg. In S.I
system, the unit of weight is Newton (N). A body weighing 60
kgf on earth will
 Specific Weight : The weight of a unit
weigh only 10 kgf
volume of a substance. It is denoted by . on the moon.

W mg
   g
V V
   g
 BASIC DEFINITION

 Force : A force is any influence that causes a free body to

undergo an acceleration. Force can also be described by
intuitive concepts such as a push or pull that can cause an
object with mass to change its velocity (which includes to
begin moving from a state of rest), i.e. to accelerate or which
can cause a flexible object to deform. A force has both
magnitude and direction, making it a vector quantity. It is
denoted by F. Its unit is Newton (N).
Mathematically F = ma

 Density : Density is mass per unit volume. It is denoted

by .
m

V
Its unit is kg/m3
 BASIC DEFINITION
 Specific gravity : The specific gravity (or relative density)
can be defined in two ways:
 Definition 1: The ratio of the density of a substance to the density of
some standard substance at a specified temperature (usually water
at 4°C).
s
SG 
 w@ 4C
 Definition 2: A ratio of the specific weight of a substance to the
specific weight of water at standard temperature
(4C) and atmospheric pressure.
s
SG 
Unit: dimensionless.  w@ 4C

o Specific volume: specific volume is volume per unit mass.

V 1
v 
m 
 SYSTEMS AND CONTROL VOLUMES
System: A quantity of matter of fixed mass or a region in
space which is chosen for study.

Surrounding: The mass or region outside the system.

Boundaries: The real or imaginary surface that separates the

system from its surroundings. The boundary of a system can
be deformable (movable) or rigid (fixed).

Boundaries

System Surroundings
 THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM
Systems may be considered to be closed or open.
1. Closed System (Control mass) : In a closed system no mass
can cross the boundary that means the system will always contain
the same amount of matter, but heat and work can be exchanged across
the boundary of the system. Whether a system can exchange heat, work
or both is dependent on the property of its boundary.

Adiabatic boundary – not allowing any heat exchange

Rigid/Fixed boundary – not allowing exchange of work
Moving boundary –allowing exchange of work

A Closed System A Closed System

 THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM
2. Open System (Control volume): In an open system mass
as well as heat and work can cross the boundary. Such as
compressor, turbine or nozzle etc.

Control surface: The boundaries of a control volume. It can be real or

imaginary.

Open System
A control volume can involve fixed, moving, real
and imaginary boundaries
 THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM

3. Isolated System : A special type of closed system that does not

interact in any way with the surroundings. They do not exchange heat,
work or mass with their surrounding. Mass and energy remains
constant within the system, and no energy or mass transfer takes place
across the boundary.

Type of system Mass Work Heat

Closed No Yes Yes
Open Yes Yes Yes
Isolated No No No
 PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM

Any observable characteristic of a system is called a property.

Some familiar properties are:

pressure P,
temperature T,
volume V,
and mass m.

Properties are considered to be either intensive or extensive.

1. Intensive properties

2. Extensive properties
 PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM
1. Intensive properties :
Those that are independent of the size of a system, such as
temperature, pressure, and density. In others words
Intensive properties are those who has the same value for
any part of the system and the value of the property of a
system is not equal the sum of the values for the parts of the
system. For example pressure, temperature, density etc.

2. Extensive properties :
Those whose values depend on the size or extent of the
system.
In others words, If the value of a property of a system equals
to the sum of the values for the parts of the system then it is
called extensive property. Mass, volume, energy is the
example of extensive property.
 PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM
Specific properties :

Extensive properties per unit mass.

V
Specific volume v  ,
m
E
Specific energy e 
m
 STATE OF A SYSTEM

The state of a system is the condition of the system at any

particular moment which can be described by its properties
such as pressure, volume, temperature etc.

A system at two different states. State 1 before expansion,

and state 2 after expansion.
 Equilibrium states

•The word equilibrium implies a state of balance. A system is

in an equilibrium state if no changes can occur in the state of
the system without the aid of an external stimulus.

A closed system reaching thermal equilibrium

 Thermodynamic Equilibrium
A system is said to be in thermodynamically equilibrium if it satisfies the
following three requirements of equilibrium
•Thermal equilibrium: If the temperature is same throughout the entire
system or there is no temperature difference between the parts of the system or
between the system and the surroundings, then it is called thermal equilibrium.
•Mechanical equilibrium: A system is said to be in mechanical
equilibrium, when there is no unbalanced forces acting on any part of the system
or the system as a whole. There is no change in pressure at any point of the
system with time.
•Chemical equilibrium: If the chemical composition of a system does not
change with time, that is, no chemical reactions occur.
 PROCESS AND PATH
Process :
A process is a transformation from one state to another. The
operation by which a system changes form one state to another
state is called a process.
To describe a process completely, one should specify the initial
and final states, as well as the path it follows, and the interactions
with the surroundings.

Path :
The series of states through which a
system passes during a process is
called path.

Process & Path

 CYCLE AND QUASI-STATIC PROCESS
Cycle :
When a process or processes are performed on
a system in such a way that the final state is
identical with the initial state, it is then known
as a thermodynamic cycle. The properties of
the system vary during a cycle, but at the
completion of a cycle all properties have been
restored to their initial value.
Cycle

Quasi-static or Quasi-equilibrium Process :

When a process is carried out in such a way
(sufficiently slow) that at every instant, the
system deviation from the thermodynamic
equilibrium is infinitesimal, that means that at
every moment in time the state of the system is
close to an equilibrium state then the process is
known as quasi-static process.
 TEMPERATURE

It is an intensive thermodynamic property, which determines the

degree of hotness or coldness of a body or environment or the
level of heat intensity of a body.

The instrument which is used for measuring temperature is

thermometer.

The most commonly used scale for measuring temperature are

 TEMPERATURE
1. Celsius or Centigrade scale :
This scale is mostly used by engineers
and scientists. The freezing point of
water on this scale is marked as zero
and the boiling point as 100. The space
between this two points has 100 equal
divisions and each division represents
one degree Celsius (oC).

2. Fahrenheit scale :
In this scale the freezing point of water
is marked as 32 and the boiling point as
212. The space between this two points
has 180 equal divisions and each
division represents one degree
Fahrenheit (oF).
 TEMPERATURE

 Relation between Celsius and Fahrenheit

C F  32

5 9
Conversion among the temperature scales

from Celsius to Celsius

 Fahrenheit °F = °C × 9⁄5 + 32 °C = (°F − 32) × 5⁄9
 Kelvin K = °C + 273 °C = K − 273
 Rankin °R = (°C + 273) × 9⁄5 °C = (°R − 491.67) × 5⁄9
 TEMPERATURE
 Absolute zero temperature:
The temperature below which the temperature of any substance can
not fall, is called absolute zero temperature.
For all sorts of calculation it is taken as -2730C in case of Celsius
Scale and -4600F in Fahrenheit Scale.

Absolute temperature:
The temperature which is measured from this zero is called absolute
temperature

The absolute temperature measured in Celsius scale is called degree

Kelvin
K = OC+273
The absolute temperature measured in Fahrenheit scale is called
degree Rankine.
OR = OF+460
 TEMPERATURE

Temperature Kelvin Celsius Fahrenheit Rankine

Scale

Absolute zero 0K −273 °C −460 °F 0 °R

Freezing point
273 K 0 °C 32 °F 492 °R
of water

Triple Point
273 K 0 °C 32 °F 492 °R
of water

Boiling Point 100 °C 212 °F 672 °R

373 K
of water
 PRESSURE

Pressure is defined as the amount of force exerted on a unit

area of a substance.

force N
P  2  Pa
area m
 UNITS FOR PRESSURE

Unit Definition or Relationship

1 pascal (Pa) 1N/m2 or 1 kg m-1 s-2
1 bar 1 x 105 Pa
1 atmosphere (atm) 101,325 Pa/101.325KPa
760 torr 1 atm
760 mm Hg 1 atm
14.696 pounds per sq. in. 1 atm
(psi)
 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
Atmospheric pressure is the force per unit area exerted into a surface by the
weight of air above that surface in the atmosphere of Earth .
For example, the atmospheric pressure felt by a man is the weight of the column of
air above his body divided by the area the air is resting on. It varies somewhat with
changing weather conditions, and it decreases with increasing altitude.

Weight of column of air

pa 
Area of base
Standard Atmospheric Pressure:
The standard atmosphere (atm) is a unit of pressure
1 atmosphere(atm) ia equal to
101.325 kPa
14.696 psi
760 mmHg or Torr
10.3 m H2O
 GAUGE PRESSURE AND ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
 Gauge pressure
Gauge pressure is the pressure measured above or below the
atmospheric pressure ( taking the atmospheric as datum) with the help
of pressure measuring instrument. It can be positive or negative.
When the gage pressure is above the atmospheric pressure then it is
called positive gauge pressure or simply gauge pressure.
When the gage pressure is below the atmospheric pressure then it is
called negative gauge pressure or vacuum pressure.
 Absolute zero pressure

 The pressure that would occur at absolute vacuum is called absolute

zero pressure. This is the lowest possible pressure.
 Absolute pressure

The pressure which is measured relative to the absolute zero pressure is

called absolute pressure. Therefore, an absolute pressure will always be
positive.

A simple equation relating the two pressure measuring system can be

written as:
 Pabs = Pgauge + Patm
 RELATION BETWEEN ABSOLUTE, GAUGE AND ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
Relation between absolute, gauge and atmospheric pressure:

Pabs = Pgauge + Patm (+ Gauge Pressure)

Pabs = Patm -P gauge (- Gauge Pressure or vacuum pressure)

Gauge Pressure
Local atmospheric
pressure reference
Vacuum Pressure

Absolute
Pressure Atmospheric Atmospheric
Pressure Pressure
Absolute
Pressure

Absolute zero reference

Relation Between Absolute, Gauge Relation Between Absolute, Vacuum

and Atmospheric Pressure and Atmospheric Pressure
RELATION BETWEEN ABSOLUTE, GAUGE AND ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

+ -

+
 N.T.P & S.T.P

N.T.P :

The condition of temperature and pressure at 0oC

temperature and 760 mm of Hg pressure are termed as
normal temperature and pressure.

S.T.P :

The temperature and pressure of any gas, under standard

atmospheric condition, is taken as 15oC and 760 mm of Hg
respectively is standard temperature and pressure.
 ENERGY , ENERGY
TRANSFER & GENERAL
ENERGY ANALYSIS
Objectives
• Introduce the concept of energy and define its various forms.
• Discuss the nature of internal energy.
• Define the concept of heat and the terminology associated with energy
transfer by heat.
• Discuss the three mechanisms of heat transfer: conduction, convection, and
radiation.
• Define the concept of work, including electrical work and several forms of
mechanical work.
• Introduce the first law of thermodynamics, energy balances, and mechanisms
of energy transfer to or from a system.
• Determine that a fluid flowing across a control surface of a control volume
carries energy across the control surface in addition to any energy transfer
across the control surface that may be in the form of heat and/or work.
• Define energy conversion efficiencies.
• Discuss the implications of energy conversion on the environment.
41
 ENERGY

It is defined as the capacity to do work or the ability

to cause changes.
The energy possessed by a system is
following two types-

1. Stored energy:
The energy which is possessed by a system
within the boundaries. Potential energy,
Kinetic energy, internal energy are stored
energy.

2. Transit energy:
The energy which is possessed by a
system , capable of crossing its boundaries
called transit energy. Heat, electrical
energy are transit energy.
 ENERGY
 If we take the entire room—including the air and the refrigerator (or
fan)—as the system, which is an adiabatic closed system since the room
is well-sealed and well-insulated, the only energy interaction involved is
the electrical energy crossing the system boundary and entering the
room.
 As a result of the conversion of electric energy consumed by the device
to heat, the room temperature will rise.

A refrigerator operating with its A fan running in a well-sealed and well-

door open in a well-sealed and insulated room will raise the temperature of air
well-insulated room in the room
 FORMS OF ENERGY

 Energy can exist in numerous forms such as thermal, mechanical, kinetic,

potential, electric, magnetic, chemical, and nuclear, and their sum
constitutes the total energy, E of a system.
 Thermodynamics deals only with the change of the total energy.
 Macroscopic forms of energy: Those a system possesses as a whole with
respect to some outside reference frame, such as kinetic and potential
energies.
 Microscopic forms of energy: Those related to the molecular structure of
a system and the degree of the molecular activity.

The macroscopic energy of an

object changes
44 with velocity
and elevation.
 TYPES OF STORED ENERGY

1. Potential energy, PE:

The energy that a system possesses as a result of its
elevation in a gravitational field. It is represented by PE.
Its unit is N-m or J.

Let W = Weight of the body

m = Mass of the body
z = Distance through which the body falls
g = Acceleration due to gravity
Potential Energy,
PE = Wz = mgz
Potential energy

Potential energy per unit mass

 TYPES OF STORED ENERGY

Kinetic energy, KE:

The energy that a system possesses as a result of its motion
relative to some reference frame. It is represented by KE.
Its unit is N-m or Jole (J)

Let m = Mass of the body

V = Velocity of the body
Then Kinetic Energy,
KE = ½ mV2
Kinetic energy

Kinetic energy per unit mass

 TYPES OF STORED ENERGY

3. Internal energy, U:
The energy which is possessed by a body or a system due
to its molecular arrangement and motion of the molecules.
It is represented by U. This is sum of all the microscopic
forms of energy.


Total energy of a system

Energy of a system per unit mass

 SOME PHYSICAL INSIGHT TO INTERNAL ENERGY
 Sensible energy: The
portion of the internal
energy of a system
associated with the kinetic
energies of the molecules.
 Latent energy: The
internal energy associated
with the phase of a
system.
 Chemical energy: The
internal energy associated
with the atomic bonds in
a molecule.
 Nuclear energy: The
tremendous amount of
energy associated with the The various forms of
strong bonds within the microscopic energies that The internal energy of a
system is the sum of all
nucleus of the atom itself. make up sensible energy.
forms of the microscopic
Thermal = Sensible + Latent energies.
Internal = Sensible + Latent + Chemical + Nuclear
• The total energy of a system, can be
contained or stored in a system, and
thus can be viewed as the static forms
of energy.
• The forms of energy not stored in a
system can be viewed as the dynamic
forms of energy or as energy
interactions.
• The dynamic forms of energy are
recognized at the system boundary as
they cross it, and they represent the
energy gained or lost by a system
during a process.
• The only two forms of energy
interactions associated with a closed
system are heat transfer and work.

• The difference between heat transfer and work: An energy interaction is heat
transfer if its driving force is a temperature difference. Otherwise it is work.
49
  Mechanical Energy
The form of energy that can be converted
to mechanical work completely and
directly by an ideal mechanical device
such as an ideal turbine. Kinetic and
potential energies are the familiar forms
of mechanical energy.
or
Mechanical energy is the sum
of potential energy and kinetic
energy present in the components of
a mechanical system. It is the energy
associated with the motion and
position of an object.
 LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

The energy can neither be

created nor destroyed,
though it can be
transformed from one form
to any other form.

Therefore the sum of all the

energies in the system is
constant.
 HEAT
Heat :
The form of energy that is
transferred between two systems
(or a system and its surroundings)
by virtue of a temperature
difference. It is represented by Q
and Its unit is Joule. This is The
energy associated with the random
motion of atoms and molecules.

Energy is recognized as heat transfer only as

it crosses the system boundary.
 HEAT TRANSFER MECHANISMS
 Energy Transfer in from of Heat by 3 ways :

 CONDUCTION : Transfer of Energy from a more energetic

particle of a substance to the adjacent less energetic one, as
a result of interaction between them.

 CONVECTION : Transfer of Energy between a solid surface

and the adjacent fluid that is in motion. It involved both,
the combined effect of conduction and fluid motion.

 RADIATION : Transfer of Energy due to the emission of

electromagnetic waves (or photons).
 WORK
 Work:
The energy transfer associated with a force acting through a
distance. It is denoted by W and its unit is N-m.
Mathematically, work can be expressed by the following
equation.
W= F x d cos
Where F = force, d = displacement, and the angle (theta) is
defined as the angle between the force and the displacement
vector.
In thermodynamics work may be defined as follows:
According to Obert,
Work is defined as the energy transfer (without transfer of
mass) across the boundary of a system because of an
intensive property difference other than temperature that
exists between the system and surroundings.
 WORK CALCULATIONS

W=Fxd W= F x d cos 300 W= F x d

=100N X 5m = 100N X 5m X .87 =15Kg(10m/s2) X 5m
=500 N m = 413 N m = 750 N m
 MECHANICAL FORMS OF WORK

 There are two requirements for a work interaction between a system

and its surroundings to exist:
 there must be a force acting on the boundary.
 the boundary must move.
 POWER

 Power is the rate of doing work or work done per unit time.

Power = Work done / Time taken

P = W/t
= F x d/t
=Fv

The units for power :

J/s or N-m / s (watt)

 SIMILARITIES BETWEEN HEAT & WORK :

1. Both are recognized at the Boundary of the System, as they cross the Boundary.
Hence both are Boundary Phenomena.
2. System possesses Energy, but neither Heat nor Work.
3. Both are associated with Process, not State. Heat and Work have NO meaning at a
State.
4. Both are Path Functions.

Path Function : Magnitude depends on the Path followed during the Process, as
well as the End States.

Point Function : Magnitude depends on State only, and not on how the System
approaches that State.
 PATH FUNCTIONS & POINT FUNCTIONS

 Path Functions have Inexact Differentials, designated by

symbol δ.

 Thus, a differential amount of Heat or Work is represented

as δQ or δW; in stead of dQ or dW.

 Properties are point functions have exact differentials,

designated by symbol d.
 Small change in Volume, is represented as dV, and is given by;
2

 dV  V
1
2  V1  V

Thus, Volume change during Process 1 – 2 is always =

(Volume at State 2) minus (Volume at State 1).
Regardless of path followed.

HOWEVER, total Work done during Process 1 – 2 is;

2

 W
1
 W1 2 ( NOT W )

i.e. Total Work is obtained by following the Process

Path and adding the differential amounts of Wok
(δW) done along it.

Integral of δW is ≠ ( W2 – W1 ). 61
 FORMAL SIGN CONVENTION

 Heat transfer to a system and work done by a system are

positive; heat transfer from a system and work done on a
system are negative. Alternative to sign convention is to use
the subscripts in and out to indicate direction.
 THE LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS

The important thermodynamic laws are

 Zeroth Law: Thermal equilibrium

 First Law: Conservation of energy

 Second Law: Entropy

 ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

 If two systems are separately in thermal equilibrium with a

third, then they must also be in thermal equilibrium with
each other.

B
tb

A C

ta tc
 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
The first law of thermodynamics (the conservation of energy
principle) provides a sound basis for studying the
relationships among the various forms of energy and energy
interactions.
This law may be stated as follows
“The heat and mechanical work are mutually convertible”
According to this law, when a closed system undergoes a
thermodynamic cycle, the net heat transfer is equal to the net work
transfer that means the cyclic integral of heat transfer is equal to
the cyclic integral of work transfer.

 W   Q
 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

 “The energy can neither be created nor destroyed though it can be

transformed from one form to another.”

Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can only change forms.

 Mathematically
Q  W  dE
 Integrating the above equation for a change of state from 1
to 2, we have
Q12 W12  E2  E1
 Where,
 Q1-2 = Heat transfer to the system during the process from state 1 to state 2

 W1-2 = Work done by the system during the process

 E1 = Total energy of the system at state 1

 =
 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

 Limitations of first Law of Thermodynamics

1. It does not specify the direction of flow of heat and
work i.e whether the heat flows from a hot body to
a cold body or from a cold body to a hot body and
does not give any condition under which these
transfer takes place.
2. Though the mechanical work can be fully
converted into heat energy, but only a part of heat
energy can be converted into mechanical work. So
the heat energy and mechanical work are not fully
mutually convertible.
 2ND LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS

 Second Law Statements

The second law of thermodynamics may be defined in many ways, but
the two common statements are

 Kelvin-Planck statement of the second law

 It is impossible for any device that operates on a cycle to receive heat
from a single reservoir and produce a net amount of work.

 The Kelvin-Planck statement of the second law of thermodynamics

states that no heat engine can produce a net amount of work while
exchanging heat with a single reservoir only. In other words, the
maximum possible efficiency is less than 100 percent.
 2ND LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS

 Clausius statement of the second law

The Clausius statement of the second law states that it is

impossible for a self acting machine, working in a cyclic
process, to transfer heat from a body at a lower
temperature to a body at a higher temperature without aid
of an external agency.
 2 nd Laws of Thermodynamics
To express the second law in a workable form,
we need the following definitions.

Thermal energy reservoir/heat reservoir

A thermal energy reservoir is a sufficiently
large system in stable equilibrium to which
and from which finite amounts of heat can be
transferred without any change in its
temperature.

A high temperature heat reservoir from which

heat is transferred is sometimes called a A source supplies
thermal energy source energy in the form
of heat, and a sink
absorbs it.
A low temperature heat reservoir to which
heat is transferred is sometimes called a
thermal energy sink.
 Heat Engine
The devices that convert heat to work.
1. They receive heat from a high-
temperature source (solar energy,
oil furnace, nuclear reactor, etc.).
2. They convert part of this heat to
work (usually in the form of a
rotating shaft.)
3. They reject the remaining waste
heat to a low-temperature sink (the
atmosphere, rivers, etc.).
4. They operate on a cycle.
Heat engines and other cyclic
devices usually involve a fluid to
and from which heat is transferred Part of the heat received by a heat
while undergoing a cycle. This engine is converted to work, while
fluid is called the working fluid. the rest is rejected to a sink.
 Thermal Efficiency,  th
The thermal efficiency is the index of
performance of a work-producing device
or a heat engine and is defined by the
ratio of the net work output (the desired
result) to the heat input (the costs to
obtain the desired result).

Desired Result
 th 
Required Input

For a heat engine the desired result is

the net work done and the input is the
heat supplied to make the cycle
operate.
The thermal efficiency is always less
than 1 or less than 100 percent.

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 Wnet , out
There fore  th 
Qin
Wnet , out  Wout  Win
Qin  Qnet
Here the use of the in and out subscripts means to use the magnitude (take the
positive value) of either the work or heat transfer and let the minus sign in the net
expression take care of the direction.

Now apply the first law to the cyclic heat engine.

0 (Cyclic)
Qnet , in  Wnet , out  U
Wnet , out  Qnet , in
Wnet , out  Qin  Qout
The cycle thermal efficiency may be written as
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 Wnet , out
 th 
Qin
Q  Qout
 in
Qin
Q
 1  out
Qin

Cyclic devices such as heat engines, refrigerators, and heat pumps often operate
between a high-temperature reservoir at temperature TH and a low-temperature
reservoir at temperature TL.

75
Heat Engine
 2 nd Laws of Thermodynamics
Heat Pump & Refrigerator

A heat pump is a thermodynamic system operating in a thermodynamic cycle that

allows the transfer of heat energy from a low temperature body to a higher
temperature body. To accomplish this energy transfer, the heat pump receives
external energy in the form of work or heat from the surroundings.

Here a refrigerator is a device that operates on a thermodynamic cycle and

extracts heat from a low-temperature medium.

The heat pump also operates on a thermodynamic cycle but rejects heat to the
high-temperature medium.

The following figure illustrates a refrigerator as a heat pump operating in a

thermodynamic cycle.