o Introduction

o Variation is a part of nature.

o You can not sign your name twice exactly the
same way. You can not also predict how you
will sign your sign next.
o But there is some thing about your sign that
makes them recognizably different from your
sign .
o There is, a larger number of these aggregates
will tend to form a predictable distribution.
• What causes such variation ?
• A) Common causes :
• Also called non - assignable causes
• Always present
• Can be predicted to happen
• Controlling –Difficult / Expensive
• Management intervention may be required
• Typically 85% of the impact
• What causes such variation ?
• B) Special causes – also called assignable
causes
• Random appearance
• Unpredictable
• Often controlled by personnel closed to
process
• Typically 15% of the impact
• Conventional process control :
• Detection system
• Checking the product during /after process
• Tolerance waste
• Statistical process
• Prevention strategy
• Focus on reducing variation .
• Avoid wastage .
• PURPOSE OF SPC :
• To gain good understanding of the process
• For effective control of process
• To reduce variation and waste
• To improve ability to consistently meet
requirements .
• To further improve the process.
• BASIC STATISTICAL CONCEPTS :
• a) STATISTICAL CONTROL :
• The condition of a process in which all
variation due to special causes have been
eliminated and only common causes remain :
stable process
• b) STABILITY : The condition of a process IN
which special causes of variation are absent.
• C) Control Chart :
• A graphical representation of a process
plotted with statistical average and one or two
control limits.
• D) Control limits:
• Limits derived from the process data on the
control chart .These limits are used to judge
the stability of a process .Not to be confused
with specification Limits.
• e) Variation :
• The unavoidable difference among the
individual outputs of a process.
• f) Process capability :
• Process capability is determined by the
variation that comes from common causes .It
generally represents the best performance of
the process.
• g) Process performance :
• Process performance is the overall output of a
process (considering the special as well as the
common causes of variation) and its relation
to the specifications.
• Customers are typically concerned about the
process performance and how they relate to
their requirements .(defined by specifications)
• h) Process spread :
• The extent to which individual values of the
process characteristics vary .Often identified
as process average +/- some multiple of
standard deviation .
• i) Specification / Specification limit :
• The engineering requirement for judging
acceptability of a particular characteristics.
specification limit is not a control limit .
• j) Rational sub group :
• A Rational sub group is one in which the samples
are selected so that the chance of variation due
to special causes occurring with in a sub-group is
minimized ,while the chance for special cause
variation between sub-group is maximized
• k) Run chart :A simple graphical representation of
a product characteristics, plotted as individual
values on a graph showing specification limits.
• l) Over adjustment/ Over control ( Type 1 error)
• Over adjustment is the process of taking action
appropriate to a special cause when in fact the
process has not changed ,thus introducing new
or additional variations into the process.ie .
Ascribing variation or mistake to a special cause
when in fact the cause belongs to the system .
(Common cause )
• m) Under – adjustment / under - control 
Type 2 error )
• Under – adjustment is the practice of not
taking appropriate action when in fact the
process is affected by special causes(s).ie.
Ascribing a variation or mistake to a system
(common causes ) when in fact the cause was
special .
• n) Histogram
• A visual representation of data A one snap shot process
• Displays frequency distribution
• Reveals information on a process
• 1) Pattern of distribution
• 2) Degree of spread
• 3) Central tendency
• There is a general feeling that histogram can detect
presence of special causes of variation .A normal
distribution does not guarantee absence of spl. Causes
of variation .
• PROCESS CONTROL :
• Gives consistent quality products
• Fewer samples sufficient for inspection
• Reduces inspection costs
• Less wastage –reduction in a scrap and rework
.
• Statistical techniques of process control-
• Factors to be considered
• 1) Nature of characteristics – Attribute, Variable
• 2) Type of process
• 3) Dominant process variables –Machine/tool set
up, person ,environment ,maintenance etc.,
• 4) Nature of process –stable ,inherently unstable .
• CONTROL CHARTS :
• Effective tool to monitor process variation and
achieve statistical control of process.
• Proven technique for improving productivity
through reduced scrap, and rework.
• An improvement tool for reducing common
causes of variation thro’ analysis of the charts.
• Prevents unnecessary process adjustments . .
• CONTROL CHARTS :
• Provide clear indication of impending changes in
process and likely occurrence of special causes ,
thus preventing action .
• Communicates information regarding important
process parameters and stability over time to the
operating personnel easy, understandable
manner .
• Allow users with little or no statistical training to
perform online diagnostic checks on the
behavior of the process.
• CONTROL CHART TYPES :-For variables
• Average and Range Charts

• Average and standard deviation charts .

• Median and range charts.

• Individual and moving range charts .

• CONTROL CHART TYPES : - For attributes
• p charts
• np charts
• c charts
• u charts
• Control chart: (X bar/ R) steps .
• Gather data : decide
• Sub-group size
• Typically 3, 4 or 5
• Consecutively produced parts .
• Sub-group frequency :
• Typically 2, or 3 per shift .
• Should enable detection of changes in process
• Can be small if process is well established .
• Control chart – steps :
• a) Number of subgroups
• Typically 25 or more ,but can be less also .
• Should ensure that major sources of variation
have had an opportunity to appear .
• Set up an event log to capture information on
all process changes .
• Control chart –steps :
• b) Set up control charts and record raw data
• c) Calculate average (X bar )and Range (R) of
each sub group , For Ex :When subgroup size is
n ,..X BAR =X’+(x1+x2+X3+ X4+…Xn) /n
• Range =Difference between highest value
and the lowest value in the subgroup.
• Control chart –steps :
• d) Select appropriate scales for plotting :
typically the rule of 2: for X bar the scale
should be 2 times the difference between the
highest and lowest of the subgroup averages
.for range , the scale shall be 0 to 2 times the
largest range .
• e) Plot the averages and Ranges on control
chart .
• Control chart : steps

• Calculate Process average : X”..

• Process average = x1+x2+x3+…Xn / N

• Control chart : steps

• Calculate average Range :R

• Average Range R”= R1+R2+r3+r4…Rn /N

• h ) Calculate control limits for both X and R..
• UCL x = X’’+ A2*R
• UCL x = X’’- A2*R
• UCL R = D4* R
• UCL R = D3* R
• where A2, D3 ,D4..are constants related to
subgroup size .
• Control chart : steps
• i)Plot control charts for both
• J) Interpret for process control : take Range chart
• Analyze data for Range
• Find and address special causes
• Discard data affected by special causes
• Recalculate control limits
• Analyze again
• Repeat till no data is affected by special causes.
• Control charts : steps
• k) Interpret for process control :take X Bar chart
• Analyze data for Averages
• Find and address special causes
• Discard data affected by special causes
• Recalculate control limits
• Re-Analyze again
• Repeat till no data is affected by special causes
• Indication of instability Process : Presence of
assignable causes )
• Any point outside the control limit
• 7 points in a row on one side of the process
Average
• 6 points in a row, decreasing or increasing
• 14 points in a row ,alternating up and down
• 2/3 points Greater than 2 sigma (same side )

• 4/5 points Greater than 1 sigma (same side0

• 15 points in a row within +/- 1 sigma

• 8 points in arow greater than +/- 1 sigma

• Control chart steps
• l) extend control limits for on-going control :
• Be careful to re-calculate control limits when
you decide to change sub-group size .
• m) Interpret for process capability .(cp/pp, cpk
/ ppk)
• n) Evaluate and improve process capability .
(By Process centering and or reducing process
spread .)
• Control chart for variable – Other types:
• Average and standard deviation X and S suitable
for
• Large sub-group samples (Nos ..)
• Real time data processing availability .
• Feature
• A more efficient indicator of process variation .
•
• Control chart for variable – Other types:
• Median and Range charts X and R
• Suitable when
• Subgroup sample is small
• Feature
• No calculations required
• Easier to implement
• Indicates actual spread of output.
• Control chart for variable – Other types:
• Individual and Moving range chart (X- MR )
• Suitable when
• Subgroup sampling not possible
• Within subgroup variation is zero
• Output from homogeneous process
• Individual and Moving Range Charts
• Feature
• Individual values are plotted
• Less sensitive to detect changes in process
• Inferior to X – R chart
• Only indication of special causes variation is
any value outside control limits .
• Individual and Moving Range Chart (X - MR )
• Calculation of control limits
• X= X1+X2=X3+X4…..Xk / K
• MR =(MR1+MR2+ MR3… MRk)/k-1
• Where k =no of individual Readings
• UCL&LCL(X)= X+/-( E2xMR)
• LCL(MR)=D4xMR
• LCL 9MR ) = D3x MR
• D3 = 0 for sub-group size below 7
• Control chart for Attributes :
• P charts
• To plot: Proportion of nonconforming items
(defectives ) in a group
• Feature :
• Sample size need not be of equal size.
• P Charts
• Sub-group size :Typically 50 to 200
• Limit variation in subgroup sizes to ≤ 25%
• Frequency : Preferably short term
• No of sub-groups =Typically 20 to 25
• Choose sample size such that NC products in each
sub-group is ≥ 5
• Calculate each sub-group’s proportion NC (p) as
shown in next slide .
• p Charts
• No of items inspected =n
• No .of non-conforming products found =np
• Hence proportional non-conforming =p=np/n
• Select verticals such that it extends from 0 to 2
times the highest proportion the NC noted .
• Plot proportion NC on control chart
• Calculate process Average proportion NC
• p =(np1+np2+np3…) / n1+n2+n3…
• p Charts
• Calculate control limits
• Interpret like in X Bar/ R charts
• a) points outside control limits
• b) Runs 7 points increasing / decreasing
• c) Run points on one side of p bar
• d) other non- random patterns
• Identify causes , correct Re-calculate control
limits.
• Control Charts for Attributes .
• np charts ..
• To plot : number of non conforming items
(defectives ) in a group or lot .
• Feature ; sample size should be constant.
• Suitable for large sample size .
• Suitable when actual no is more meaningful .
• Process capability

• Measure of capability of a process to produce

a product within specification limits .
• Measure of the margin between design
specification and actual process spread ,.
• Process capability –significance
• All processes have variations
• Variation is unique
• Can be attributed to many factors
• It is necessary to control variation
• It is therefore important to monitor the process
and quality variability .
• Capability measures the output of the process
and compares with specification .
• Basic requirements for evaluating Process
capability .
• Process should be stable.
• Measurement from process conform tonormal
distribution .
• Measurement variation is small
• Engineering specification accurately
represents customer requirements.
• Specification limits
• Specification limits represents the design
Specification of a characteristics .
• Specification limit includes the target value
and acceptable tolerance .
• Acceptable tolerance represents the
maximum variation permissible for the target
value .
• Specification limits
• Upper specification limit =Target value +
Positive tolerance
• Lower specification limit = Target value –
Negative tolerance
• Often it may also represnet the customer
requirements .
• Standard deviation
• Variation of the process is measured by
standard deviation .
• S = R / d2
• Where d2 is constant related to sub group
value .
• Proportion of specification limits to standard
deviation represents the amount of defective
in a process.
• Measures of process capability for variable
data
• 1.Total Range of inherent variation : 6s
• Cp = USL- LSL / 6s……..(6sigma)
• Cpk =Min (USL –X)/3s……..X- LSL/3s
• Currently acceptance value of Cpk = >1.67
• Process capability for Attribute data
• p Chart - p = Process average nonconformity
• np Chart – p= Process average nonconformity
• U Chart - u = Average of nonconforming per
unit
• C Chart – c = Average number of per
nonconformities per sample .
• What is +/- x Sigma Product quality ?
• When Cp /Cpk =1.00 and process is centered .
• You may get 2700 ppm nonconforming
products .
• when Cpk is = 1.33 you may get 63 ppm
defects
• What is a 6 - Sigma Product Quality ?
• 2 defective parts per billion when process is
centered and static.
• 3-4 defective parts per billion when process is
shifted by 1.5s
• A 6s process therefore is nearly a defect free
process and fully capable .
• Cp / Cpk = 1
• 99.73%...100-99.73 =0.27
ie : 0.27x1000000/100 =2700 ppm

• Cp/Cpk = 1.6
• 99.9998%...100-99.9998 =0.0002
• Ie: 0.0002 x1000000/100 =2 ppm
STATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROL :
• Main elements of Phase -1
• Analysis of the process
• What should the process do?
• What can go wrong ?
• What parameters /characteristics are most
sensitive to variation ?
• How is the process doing ? ( Current
Performance)
STATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROL :
• Main elements of Phase -2: Maintain the Process :
• Identify the characteristics that impact the process
significantly .
• Identify the techniques to control the process involving
this characteristics .
• Document these controls in control plan
• Implement the control plan .
• Effectively monitor the process
• Ensure the process in under control and is capable.
STATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROL :
• Main elements of Phase -3- Improve the process
• Continuously analyze long term performance of
the process.
• Introduce known variation into the process and
study effects to understand the process better .
• Focus on characteristics that are most important
• Reduce variation further in these characteristics .
•