Concept

A generalized idea about a class of

objects, attributes, occurrences, or
processes
 Operational Definition

Specifies what the researcher must do

to measure the concept under
investigation
 Scale
• Series of items arranged according to value
for the purpose of quantification
• A continuous spectrum
Nominal Scale
Ordinal Scale
Interval Scale
Ratio Scale
 Scale Properties
• Uniquely classifies
• Preserves order
• Equal intervals
• Natural zero
 Ratio Scale Properties
• X1/X2 and (X2-X1) are meaningful
quantities
• Natural ordering (ascending or descending),
i.e. X2 ≤ X1 or X2 ≥ X1 are meaningful
• Most economic variables belong to this
category
• E.g. How large is the GDP of 2006 as
compared to the GDP of 2005.
 Interval Scale Properties
• The distance between two periods, say
(2006 – 2000) is meaningful, but not the
ratio of two time periods (2006/2000)
 Ordinal Scale Properties
• Satisfies the natural ordering
• But the distance cannot be quantified
• E.g. Grading systems (A, B, C grades) or
Income class (upper, middle, lower)
 Nominal Scale Properties
• Uniquely classifies
• Simply denotes categories
• E.g. Gender (male, female) or Marital status
(married, unmarried, divorced)
 Four Levels of Measurement
• Nominal measurements are mutually exclusive and
exhaustive categories.
• Ordinal measurements are mutually exclusive and
exhaustive categories that are ranked.
• Interval measurements are mutually exclusive and
exhaustive categories that are ranked with equal distance
between the categories being measured.
• Ratio measurements are mutually exclusive and
exhaustive categories that are ranked with equal distance
between categories being measured, and there is a true
zero.

Copyright @ Allyn & Bacon 2003

 Scales
• The Likert Scale is called a summated rating or
additive scale because a total score is computed
along a continuum such as: “I really like research
methods,” with the choices being:
SA A Unc D SD
• Thurstone Scale consists of many statements that
are rated by judges to reduce a number of items to
a range that spans all opinions on the topic.
• Bogardus Social Distance involves responses
that are gathered into a series of ordered
statements from very threatening to least
threatening.

Copyright @ Allyn & Bacon 2003

 Scales continued….
• Semantic Differential involves responses that are
gathered to a set of polar opposite adjectives that create a
rating scale.
Bad __ __ __ __ __ Good
Fast __ __ __ __ __ Slow

• The Guttman Scaling is called cumulative scaling. This is

a technique researchers use after data has been collected to
determine whether a set of items can be combined to form
a scale.

Copyright @ Allyn & Bacon 2003

 Index Measures
• ATTRIBUTES A single characteristic or
fundamental feature that pertains to an
object, person, or issue
• COMPOSITE MEASURE A composite
measure of several variables to measure a
single concept; a multi-item instrument
 The Goal
of Measurement Validity
 Why Measure?
• Measurement is the assignment of a symbol, often
a numeral, to represent an object.
• Scientific measurement extends our senses. By
using telescopes, microscopes or standardized
scales we obtain more exact information, often
seeing things that would otherwise have been
invisible.
• It is important to have a clear idea about what is
intended to be measured.

Copyright @ Allyn & Bacon 2003

 Qualitative and Quantitative
Measurement
• While planning and designing precise ways to measure is
critical to quantitative researchers, qualitative researchers
are more likely to design their own strategies as they go.
• Quantitative researchers develop techniques that produce
quantitative or numerical data; qualitative researchers are
more likely to use words, symbols, pictures and physical
objects as data.
• Quantitative researchers contemplate concepts and
variables prior to conducting the research or evaluation,
whereas qualitative researchers develop their measurements
as they go.
Copyright @ Allyn & Bacon 2003
Five Ways to Develop a Measure
• Remember the conceptual definition.
• Keep an open mind.
• Borrow from others.
• Anticipate difficulties.
• Remember the units of analysis.

Copyright @ Allyn & Bacon 2003

 Operationalization
• Quantitative researchers operationalize variables
by turning conceptual definitions into a set of
procedures to be used in collecting data.
• Qualitative researchers operationalize “on the fly”
as they proceed through the research experience
and think about what they are doing in concert
with others who are also present in the setting.

Copyright @ Allyn & Bacon 2003

 Validity

The ability of a scale to measure what

was intended to be measured
 Reliability

The degree to which measures are

free from random error and therefore
yield consistent results
Reliability and Validity on Target

Old Rifle New Rifle New Rifle

Sun glare
Low Reliability High Reliability Reliable but Not
Valid
(Target A) (Target B) (Target C)