UNIT-VIII: DIRECT ENERGY CONVERSION

Introduction to Magneto Hydrodynamics (MHD) Power

Generation:
• 80% of total electricity is produced in the world is hydal.
• 20% of electricity produced from nuclear, thermal, solar,
geothermal energy and Magneto hydrodynamics (MHD)
generators.
• MHD power generation is a new system & which is high
efficiency and low pollution.
• In advanced countries MHD generators are widely used.
• In developing countries like India it is still under
construction.
• This construction work is in progress at Trichi in Tamilnadu
under joint effort of BARC (Bhabha Atomic Research Centre)
BHEL & Associated Cement Corporation (ACC) and Russian
Technologist.
Magneto Hydrodynamics (MHD):
• MHD is concerned with the flow of a conducting fluid in the
presence of magnetic and electric field.

• Fluid may be gas or liquid metal like sodium or potassium.

• An MHD generator is a device for converting heat energy of

a fuel directly into electrical energy without a conventional
electric generator.

• In this system, an MHD converter system is heat engine, in

which heat taken up at a higher temperatures is partly
converted into useful (electrical) work and the reminder is
rejected at a lower temperature.
History:
 Magneto hydrodynamics (MHD)
(magneto fluid dynamics or hydro
magnetics) is the academic
discipline which studies
the dynamics of electrically
conducting fluids. Examples of
such fluids include plasmas, liquid
metals, and salt water.
 The word magneto hydro
dynamics (MHD) is derived
from magneto- meaning magnetic
field, and hydro- meaning liquid,
and -dynamics meaning
movement. The field of MHD was
initiated by Hannes Alfvén , for Hannes Alfvén
which he received the Nobel
Prize in Physics in 1970
Working Principle of MHD:

Contd…..
Working Principle of MHD:
The principle of MHD generation is discovered by
faraday: when an electric conductor moves across a
magnetic field, a voltage is induced in it which
produces an electric current.

Contd…..
In MHD generators, the solid conductors are replaced
by a gaseous conductor; an ionized gas. If a gas is
passed at a high velocity through a powerful magnetic
field, a current is generated and can be extracted by
placing electrodes in a suitable position in the stream.

Contd…..
Mathematical Theory of the principle of
MHD generator….????
 An electric conductor moving through a magnetic field experiences a
retarding force as well as an induced electric field and current.
 This effect is a result of Faraday’s law of Electromagnetic induction.
 Induced EMF is given by :-
Eind= U * B ,
where U=velocity of conductor, B=magnetic field intensity
 The induced current density is :-
Jind= σEind ,
where , σ= electric conductivity
 The Retarding Force on the conductor is the Lorentz Force is given
by:-
Find= Jind * B
 The movement of the force through a displacement(mechanical work)
is converted to electrical work(current flow) by means of
electromagnetic induction principle. Contd…..
 The direct flow of kinetic energy into electrical energy by the flow
of an electrically conducting fluid is usually a gas or a gas liquid
combination through a stationery magnetic field.
 If the flow is at right angles to the magnetic field direction, an
electromotive force is induced in the direction at right angles to
both flow and field directions.

Contd…..
 The conducting flow fluid is forced between the plates with a kinetic
energy and pressure differential sufficient to overcome the magnetic
induction force Find.
 An Ionized gas is employed as the conducting fluid.
 Ionization is produced either by thermal means i.e. by an elevated
temp. or by seeding with substance like cesium or potassium vapours
which ionize at relatively low temp.
 The atoms of the seed element split electrons. The presence of the
negatively charged electrons makes the carrier gas an electrical
conductor.
 The other way is to incorporate a liquid metal into a flowing carrier
gas. Since the metal is a good electrical conductor, the gas metal
mixture can be used as the working fluid in an MHD generator.

Contd…..
Thermal Efficiency Of MHD Generator
 Thermal efficiency of MHD generator is given as :-
ηth = work output/heat input

Typical efficiencies of MHD generators are around 10 to 20 percent

mainly due to the heat lost through the high temperature exhaust.

 Several factors that reduce the efficiency are :

I. Dissipation of energy in the internal resistance of the ionized gas.

II. A space charger barrier at the electrode surface.
III. Heat transfer through the electrode and insulator walls.
IV. Various losses assosiated with fluid friction.
V. Hall Effect losses resulting in current induction in the direction of
the flow. The Hall Effect causes a voltage gradient in a direction
perpendicular to the applied magnetic field and current flow.
 Structure of MHD Generator
 A simple magneto hydro dynamic generator consists of a gas
nozzle.
 The gas nozzle is a combustion chamber that injects a pulse of
gas into the channel/duct. The walls of the channel act as an
electrode.
 The induced electric current is fed to the load by an external
circuit that supplies the generated electricity to the desired
destination.
 The MHD generators can be constructed in various designs like
the Faraday generator, Hall generator and disc generator.
 Faraday generator was the first designed MHD generator. It
was made by Michael Faraday in 1831. The Faraday generator
used copper disks and a horse-shoe magnet to generate
electricity.
MHD Generator
MHD Generator
VARIOUS MHD SYSTEMS
The MHD systems are broadly classified into
two types:

 OPEN CYCLE SYSTEM

 CLOSED CYCLE SYSTEM-

 Seeded insert gas system

 Liquid metal system
Open Cycle System:

Contd…..
•In open cycle system the working fluid after generating electrical
energy is discharged to the atmosphere through a stack.
• An elementary open cycle MHD system, is shown in fig .The
MHD generator resembles a rocket engine surrounded by a
magnet the coal is burnt to produced hot gas.
• The hot gas is then seeded with a small amount of an ionized
alkali metal (cesium or potassium) to increase the electrical
conductivities of gas.
•The gas expands through the generator surrounded by powerful
magnet.
• During the motion of gas the positive and negative ions move to
the electrodes and constitute an electric current. The rejected gas
passes through an air heater for preheating the inlet air.
• The seed material is recovered for successive use. The nitrogen
and Sulpher are removing for pollution controlled and then gasses
are discharged to the atmosphere.
Contd…..
Hybrid MHD Steam Plant Cycle:

Contd…..
• The Open cycle is not suitable for commercial use. The exhaust
gases of MHD unit are still at a sufficiently hot temperature it is
possible to use for additional power generation in a steam turbine
alternator unit. This is increase the efficiency of process. Such
cycle is known as hybrid MHD-steam plant cycle.

• Such cycle is known as hybrid MHD-steam plant cycle.

•Figure shows hybrid MHD steam cycle, coal is processed and

burnt in the combustor at high temperature (2750 to 3000 °K) and
pressure (7 to 15 at atmosphere). With preheated air to form the
plasma. The plasma is then seeded with small fraction (1%) of an
alkali metal (potassium) introduced usually as a carbonate powder
or solution.

Contd…..
For efficient Practical realization an MHD system
must have the Following Features:
• Air super heated arrangement to heat the gas to around 25000
C, So that electrical conductivity of the gas is increased.

• The combustion chamber must have low heat losses.

• Arrangement to add a low ionization potential seed material to

the gas to increase its conductivity.

• A water cooled but electrically insulating expanding duct with

long life electrodes.

• Seed recovery apparatus – necessary for both environmental

and economic reason.

Contd…..
 Closed Cycle System:
• The closed cycle inert gas MHD system was conceived 1965.
• The main disadvantages of the open cycle system is very high
temperature requirement and a very chemically active flow, could
be removed by closed cycle MHD system.
•Two general types of closed cycle MHD generators are being
investigated.
• Electrical conductivity is maintained in the working fluid by
ionization of a seeded material, as in closed cycle system.
i.e. Seeded inert gas system.
• A liquid metal provides the conductivity.
i.e. Liquid Metal System.
• The carrier is usually a chemical inert gas, all through a liquid carrier is
been used with a liquid metal conductor. The working fluid is circulated
in a closed loop and is heated by the combustion gases using a heat
exchanger. Hence the heat sources and the working fluid are
independent. The working fluid is helium or argon with cesium seeding.
Contd…..
1. Seeded inert gas system.

Contd…..
 In a closed cycle system the carrier gas operates in the form
of Brayton cycle. In a closed cycle system the gas is
compressed and heat is supplied by the source, at essentially
constant pressure, the compressed gas then expands in the
MHD generator, and its pressure and temperature fall. After
leaving this generator heat is removed from the gas by a
cooler, this is the heat rejection stage of the cycle. Finally the
gas is recompressed and returned for reheating.

 The complete system has three distinct but interlocking loops.

On the left is the external heating loop. Coal is gasified and
the gas is burnt in the combustor to provide heat. In the
primary heat exchanger, this heat is transferred to a carrier
gas argon or helium of the MHD cycle. The combustion
products after passing through the air preheated and purifier
are discharged to atmosphere.
Contd…..
 Because the combustion system is separate from the working
fluid, so also are the ash and flue gases. Hence the problem
of extracting the seed material from fly ash does not arise. The
fuel gases are used to preheat the incoming combustion air
and then treated for fly ash and sulfur dioxide removal, if
necessary prior to discharge through a stack to the
atmosphere.

 The loop in the center is the MHD loop. The hot argon gas is
seeding with cesium and resulting working fluid is passed
through the MHD generator at high speed. The dc power out of
MHD generator is converted in ac by the inverter and is then
fed to the grid.

Contd…..
1. Liquid Metal System.
 When a liquid metal provides the electrical conductivity, it is
called a liquid metal MHD system.

 An inert gas is a convenient carrier

 The carrier gas is pressurized and heated by passage through

a heat exchanger within combustion chamber. The hot gas is
then incorporated into the liquid metal usually hot sodium to
form the working fluid. The latter then consists of gas bubbles
uniformly dispersed in an approximately equal volume of liquid
sodium.

 The working fluid is introduced into the MHD generator through

a nozzle in the usual ways. The carrier gas then provides the
required high direct velocity of the electrical conductor.Contd….
 After passage through the generator, the liquid metal is
separated from the carrier gas. Part of the heat from heat
exchanger is used to produce steam for operating a turbine
generator. Finally the carrier gas is cooled, compressed and
returned to the combustion chamber for reheating and mixing
with the recovered liquid metal. The working fluid temperature
is usually around 800’c as the boiling point of sodium even
under moderate pressure is below 9000c.

 At lower operating temp, the other MHD conversion systems

may be advantageous from the material standpoint, but the
maximum thermal efficiency is lower. A possible compromise
might be to use liquid lithium, with a boiling point near 13000c
as the electrical conductor lithium is much more expensive
than sodium, but losses in a closed system are less.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN OPEN CYCLE AND
CLOSED CYCLE SYSTEM
Open Cycle System Closed Cycle System
 Working fluid after  Working fluid is recycled to
generating electrical the heat sources and thus is
energy is discharged to used again.
the atmosphere
through a stack .
 Helium or argon(with
 Operation of MHD cesium seeding) is used as
generator is done directly the working fluid.
on combustion products .
 Temperature requirement :
 Temperature requirement about 530˚C.
: 2300˚C to 2700˚C.
 Less developed.
 More developed.
Advantage of MHD:
 The conversion efficiency of a MHD system can be around
50% much higher compared to the most efficient steam plants.
Still higher efficiencies are expected in future, around 60 – 65
%, with the improvements in experience and technology.
 Large amount of power is generated.
 It has no moving parts, so more reliable.
 The closed cycle system produces power, free of pollution.
 It has ability to reach the full power level as soon as started.
 The size if the plant is considerably smaller than conventional
fossil fuel plants.
 Although the cost cannot be predicted very accurately, yet it
has been reported that capital costs of MHD plants will be
competitive to conventional steam plants.
 It has been estimated that the overall operational costs in a
plant would be about 20% less than conventional steam plants.
Contd...
 Direct conversion of heat into electricity permits to eliminate
the turbine (compared with a gas turbine power plant) or both
the boiler and the turbine (compared with a steam power plant)
elimination reduces losses of energy.

 These systems permit better fuel utilization. The reduced fuel

consumption would offer additional economic and special
benefits and would also lead to conservation of energy
resources.

 It is possible to use MHD for peak power generations and

emergency service. It has been estimated that MHD equipment
for such duties is simpler, has capability of generating in large
units and has the ability to make rapid start to full load.
Disadvantage of MHD:
 Suffers from reverse flow (short circuits) of electrons
through the conducting fluids around the ends of
the magnetic field.

 Needs very large magnets and this is a major

expense.

 High friction and heat transfer losses.

 High operating temperature.

 Coal used as fuel poses problem of molten ash

which may short circuit the electrodes. Hence, oil
or natural gas are much better fuels for MHDs.
Restriction on use of fuel makes the operation
more expensive.
Applications:

 Power generation in space craft.

 Hypersonic wind tunnel experiments.

 Defense application.