Basic Block Diagram of Op-Amp

An Op-Amp can be conveniently divided in to four main blocks

1. An Input Stage or Input Diff. Amp.
2. The Gain Stage
3. The Level Translator
4. An Out put Stage
Note: It can be used to perform various mathematical operations such
as Addition, Subtraction, Integration, Differentiation, log etc.

V1 Out put
Input Stage Gain Stage Level
I/ P (Diff. Amp.) Shifter Stage VO
(C E Amp.) (Buffer)
V2

Op-Amp IC
 IC Product

OFFSET OUTPUT A 1 8 V+
NULL
1 8 N.C.
-IN A 2  7 OUTPUT B
-IN 2 7 V+
 +
+IN A 3  6 -IN B
+IN 3 + 6 OUTPUT
V 4 + 5 +IN B
OFFSET
V 4 5 NULL

DIP-741 Dual op-amp 1458 device

Operational Amplifier 2
 Introduction

• Operational Amplifiers are represented

both schematically and realistically below:
– Active component!
 Single-Ended Input
+
V o
• + terminal : Source
• – terminal : Ground
~ Vi • 0o phase change


+
Vo • + terminal : Ground
• – terminal : Source
 • 180o phase change

~
V i

Ref:080114HKN Operational Amplifier 4

Operational Amplifier Symbol

Figure 2.1 Circuit symbol for the op amp.

 An IDEAL OP AMP

An ideal op amp has the following characteristics:

1. Infinite open-loop voltage gain, AV ≈ ∞.
2. Infinite input resistance, Ri ≈ ∞.
3. Zero output resistance, Ro ≈ 0.
4. Infinite CMRR, ρ =∞
5. The output voltage Vo=0; when Vd = V2-V1 = 0
6. Change of output VOLTAGE per unit time , slew rate =
∂Vo/∂t and ideally it should be ∞.It indicates how
rapidly the output changes with input frequency
7. Change in out put voltage with Temp., ∂Vo/∂Vi=0
 Finite Common-Mode Rejection
Ratio (CMRR)
A(or Adm) = differential-mode gain
Acm = common-mode gain
vid = differential-mode input
voltage
vic = common-mode input voltage

A real amplifier responds to An ideal amplifier has Acm = 0, but for a

signal common to both inputs, real amplifier it has very small value as
called the common-mode input it is given by Vo/Vcm,
voltage (vic). In general,

CMRR = Adm/Acm
measured in dB
An Electrical Representation of Op Amp.
 The Operational Amplifier
+VS

i(-) _
Inverting
RO
vid A Output
Ri
vO = AdVid
Noninverting
i(+) +

-VS
• i(+), i(-) : Currents into the amplifier on the inverting and non-inverting lines
respectively
• vid : The input voltage from inverting to non-inverting inputs
• +VS , -VS : DC source voltages, usually +15V and –15V
• Ri : The input resistance, ideally infinity
• A : The gain of the amplifier. Ideally very high, in the 1x1010 range.
• RO: The output resistance, ideally zero
• vO: The output voltage; vO = AOLvid where AOL is the open-loop voltage gain
 Operational Amplifier Model
• An operational amplifier circuit is designed so that
1) Vout = Av (V1-V2) (Av is a very large gain)
2) Input resistance (Rin) is very large
3) Output resistance (Rout) is very low

V1
Rout Vout
Rin
+ Av(V1- V2)
-
V2
 Practical Op-Amp Circuits

These Op-amp circuits are commonly used:

– Inverting Amplifier
– Noninverting Amplifier
– Unity Follower
– Summing Amplifier
– Integrator
– Differentiator
 Inverting Op-Amp
Slide 7

 Rf
Vo  V1
R1
 Inverting Amplifier

Op-amp are almost always used with a negative feedback:

Part of the output signal is returned to the input with negative sign
Feedback reduces the gain of op-amp
Since op-amp has large gain even small input produces large output, thus for the
limited output voltage (lest than VCC) the input voltage vx must be very small.
Practically we set vx to zero when analyzing the op-amp circuits.

with vx =0 i1 = vin /R1

i2
i2 = i1 and

i1 vo = -i2 R2 = - vin R2 /R1

so
Av=vo /vin = -- R2 /R1
Noninverting Amplifier

Rf
Vo  (1  )V1
R1
 Summing Amplifier
The output voltage in summing amplifier is

vo=-if*Rf since vi=0

if=iA+iB=vA/RA+vB/RB => vo=-(vA/RA+vB/RB)*Rf

iA if

iB
+
vi
-
 Summing Amplifier

Because the op-amp has a high input impedance the multiple inputs are treated as separate inputs.
 Rf Rf Rf 
Vo   V1  V2  V3 
 R1 R2 R3 
Example 1 Design an summer which
has an output voltage given by
vO=1.5vs1-5vs2+0.1vs3。
Solution 2: Because R2 // R f  R4 // R1 // R3
Rf Rf Rf
vO  v S1  vS 2  vS 3
R1 R2 R3
Rf Rf Rf
 1.5 , 5  0.1
R1 R2 R3
Let R2  2K
10  2
R f  10K ，R3  100K ，R1   6.7K
3
2 // 10  100 // 6.7 // R4
20  670
R4   2.27 K
12  670  20  106.7
 Differential Amplifier Using Op Amp
R2 i1
I/P Current to op amp is zero
i1 R1
v  v v1 v
- vo
v
v2 +
v1  v R1
i1  R2
R1
v  v0
i1 
R2
v1  v v  v0

R2 R1 R2
v  v2
R1  R2 R2 R2
v1  v2 v2  v0
R1  R2 R  R2
 1
R1 R2
 Differential Amplifier Using Op Amp
R2 i1
R2 R2
v1  v2 v2  v0
R1  R2 R1  R2
 i1 R1 v
R1 R2 v1 -
v vo
v2 +
R2 R2 R22 R1
v0   v1  v2  v2
R1 R1  R2 R1  R1  R2  R2

R2 R2  R2 
v0   v1  1   v2
R1 R1  R2  R1 
R2
v0   v2  v1 
R1
The Unity-Gain Amplifier or “Buffer”

• This is a special case of the non-inverting amplifier, which is also called

a voltage follower, with infinite R1 and zero R2.
Hence Av = 1.
• It provides an excellent electrical isolation while maintaining the signal
voltage level.
• The “ideal” buffer requires no input current and can drive any desired
load resistance without loss of signal voltage.
• Such a buffer is used in many sensor and data acquisition system
applications.
 Unity-Gain Buffer
Closed-loop voltage gain
vi v
+
v vo AF 
vo
- vi
vi  v  v  vo
vi  v  v  vo
v
AF  o  1
vi
Used as a "line driver" that transforms a high input impedance (resistance) to
a low output impedance. Can provide substantial current gain.
Op-Amp Integrator
 Op-Amp Integrator Cont…
Since the inverting input is at virtual ground

v in
i1 
R
dv
i2  C o
dt
Applying KCL at the inverting input

i1+i2 = 0

dv o vin
 C  0
dt R
1
 vo  
RC  v in dt  v o (initial )
Op-Amp Differentiator Circuit
 Op-Amp Differentiator Cont…
Since the inverting input is at virtual ground

dv in
i1  C
dt
vo
i2 
R
Applying KCL at the inverting input
i1+i2 = 0

dvin v o
 C  0
dt R
dv in
 v o  RC
dt
Differentiators are avoided in practice as they amplify noise
 Inverting Amplifier: Example
• Problem: Design an inverting amplifier
• Given Data: Av= 20 dB, Rin = 20k,
• Assumptions: Ideal op amp
• Analysis: Input resistance is controlled by R1 and voltage gain
is set by R2 / R1.
and Av =
-100
A minus sign is added since the amplifier is inverting
AvdB 20log Av , Av 1040dB/20dB 100
10
.

R  R  20k
1 in
R
Av  2  R 100R  2M
R 2 1
1


 Non-inverting Amplifier:
Example
• Problem: Determine the output voltage
and current for the given non-inverting
amplifier.
• Given Data: R1= 3k, R2 = 43k, vs=
+0.1 V
• Assumptions: Ideal op amp
• Analysis:

Since i-=0, R 43k

Av 1 2 1 15.3
R 3k
1
vo  Avvs (15.3)(0.1V)1.53V

 vo 1.53V
io    33.3A
R  R 43k  3k
2 1
 Difference Amplifier: Example
• Problem: Determine vo
• Given Data: R1= 10k, R2 =100k, v1=5 V, v2=3 V
• Assumptions: Ideal op amp. Hence, v-= v+ and i-= i+= 0.
• Analysis: Using dc values,
R 100k
A  2  10
dm R 10k
1
 
Vo  A V V 10(5 3)
dm 1 2 
Vo 20.0 V

Here Adm is called the

 “differential mode voltage gain” of the difference amplifie
 with floating load
Vf

Output current depends on

input voltage
Voltage to current converter
with grounded load
Load current depends on input
voltage
Current-to-Voltage Converter
v
+
vo
v - ii  i f
ii
v  v  0
RF if
0  v0  i f RF
v0  ii RF

Transresistance  v0 ii   RF

 s

Active Filter

Basic Filter Responses

.
Vi(t) Filter .V (t)
o voltage gain A( s) 
vO ( s )
vi ( s )
S  j  Vo ( j )
A( j )   A( j )  ( j )
Basic Filter Responses Vi( j )
Low-Pass Filter

bandwidth Transition region

stopband region

cutoff frequency
Active Filter
 BUTTERWORTH FILTERS

A unity-gain Butterworth low-pass filter has a transfer function whose

magnitude is given by

1
H ( j ) 
1   / c 
2n

1. The cutoff frequency is wc for all values of n.

2. If n is large enough, the denominator is always close to unity
when w<wc.
3. In the expression for |H(jw)|, the exponent of w/wc is always
even.
Given an equation for the magnitude of the transfer function, how
do we find H(s)? To find H(s), note that if N is a complex quantity,
the |N|2=NN*. Then,

H ( j )  H ( j ) H ( j )  H ( s) H ( s)
2

since s 2   2
1 1 1
H ( j )   
2

1   2 n 1  ( 2 ) n 1  ( s 2 ) n
1
H ( s) H ( s) 
1  (1) n s 2 n
The procedure for finding H(s) for a given n is:
1. Find the roots of the polynomial 1+(-1)ns2n=0
2. Assign the left-half plane roots to H(s) and the right-
half plane roots to H(-s)
3. Combine terms in the denominator of H(s) to form
first- and second-order factors
 EXAMPLE
Find the Butterworth transfer function for n=2.

For n=2, 1+(-1)2s4=0, then s4=-1=1 1800

1 1 1 1
s1  1450  j s2  11350   j
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
s3  12250   j s4  13150  j
2 2 2 2

Roots s2 and s3 are in the left-half plane. Thus,

1
H ( s) 
s  1 2 j 
2 s 1 2 j 2 
1
H ( s) 
s 2  2s  1
 Normalized Butterworth Polynomials

1 (s  1)
2 (s 2  2s  1)
3 (s  1)(s 2  s  1)
4 (s 2  0.765s  1)( s 2  1.848s  1)
5 (s  1)(s 2  0.618s  1)( s 2  1.618s  1)
6 (s 2  0.518s  1)( s 2  2 s  1)( s 2  1.932s  1)
 BUTTERWORTH FILTER CIRCUITS

To construct a Butterworth filter circuit, we cascade first- and second-

order op amp circuits using the polynomials given in the table. A fifth-
order prototype Butterworth filter is shown in the following figure:

1 1 1
vi vo
s 1 s 2  0.618s  1 s 2  1.618s  1

All odd-order Butterworth polynomials include the factor (s+1), so all

odd-order BUtterworth filters must include a subcircuit to implement
this term. Then we need to find a circuit that provides a transfer
function of the form 1
H ( s) 
s 2  b1s  1
 C1 Va  Vi V  Vo
 (Va  Vo ) sC1  a 0
R R R R
+ +
V  Va
Va Vo Vo sC 2  o 0
vi + C2 R

1
Vo  Vi
(2  RC1s)Va  (1  RC1s)Vo  Vi R C1C2 s  2 RC 2 s  1
2 2

 Va  (1  RC 2 s)Vo  0 1
Vo R 2C1C2
H (s)  
2 1 Vi s 2  2 s  1
b1  1 C1 C1C2
C1 C1C2
 EXAMPLE
Design a fourth-order low-pass filter with a cutoff frequency of 500 Hz
and a passband gain of 10. Use as many 1 KΩ resistor as possible.

From table, the fourth-order Butterworth polynomial is

(s 2  0.765s  1)( s 2  1.848s  1)

For the first stage: C1=2/0.765=2.61 F, C2=1/2.61=0.38F

For the second stage: C3=2/1.848=1.08 F, C4=1/1.08=0.924F

These values along with 1-Ω resistors will yield a fourth-order

Butterworth filter with a cutoff frequency of 1 rad/s.
A frequency scale factor of kf=3141.6 will move the cutoff frequency
to 500 Hz. A magnitude scale factor km=1000 will permit the use of 1
kΩ resistors. Then,

R=1 kΩ, C1=831 nF, C2=121 nF, C3= 344 nF, C4=294 nF, Rf= 10
kΩ.
R
C3 f
C1 Ri
R R
R R + +
+ +
C4 Vo
+ C2
vi
 The Order of a Butterworth Filter

As the order of the Butterworth filter increases, the magnitude

characteristic comes closer to that of an ideal low-pass filter.
Therefore, it is important to determine the smallest value of n that will
meet the filtering specifications.

|H(jw)| 1
Pass Transition band Stop Ap  20 log 10
band WP WS band 1   p2 n
log10w
A  10 log 10 (1   p2 n )
P
1
As  20 log 10
A
1  s2 n
S

 10 log 10 (1  s2 n )

 0.1 A p
10  1   p2 n 10 0.1 As  1   s2 n
n
 s  10  0.1 As
1  s
   
 
1  p
 0.1 A p
 p 10

n log 10 ( s  p )  log 10 ( s  p )

log 10 ( s  p )
n
log 10 ( s  p )
If wp is the cutoff frequency, then

Ap  20 log 10 2 and  p  1

log 10  s
n
log 10 ( s  p )

For a steep transition region, 10 0.1 As  1 Thus,

 s  100.05 A  log 10  s  0.05 As

s

 0.05 As
n
log 10 (s  p )
 EXAMPLE

Determine the order of a Butterworth filter that has a cutoff

frequency of 1000 Hz and a gain of no more than -50 dB at 6000
Hz. What is the actual gain in dB at 6000 Hz?

Because the cutoff frequency is given,  and

p 1
10-0.1(-50)>>1

 0.05(50)
n  3.21
log 10 (6000 / 1000)

Therefore, we need a fourth-order Butterworth filter. The actual gain

at 6000 Hz is
 1 
K  20 log 10    62.25 dB

 1 6 
8
 EXAMPLE
Determine the order of a Butterworth filter whose magnitude is 10 dB
less than the passband magnitude at 500 Hz and at least 60 dB less
than the passband magnitude at 5000 Hz.

 p  100.1( 10)  1  3,  s  10 0.1( 60)  1  1000 Thus we need

s  p  f s f p  5000 500  10 a third-order
log 10 (1000 3) filter.
n  2.52
log 10 (10)

Determine the cutoff frequency.

 10 log 10[1  ( c ) 6 ]  10  1  (  c )  10

 1000
c  6  6  2178.26 rad/s
9 9
 BUTTERWORTH HIGH-PASS
FILTERS
To produce the second-order factors in the Butterworth polynomial,
we need a circuit with a transfer function of
s2 s2
H ( s)  2 H ( s) 
Vo

s  b1s  1 Vi s 2  2 s  1
R2C R1 R2C 2

R1 Setting C= 1F
C C
+ +
Vo s2
Vo H ( s)  
vi + R2 Vi s 2  2 s  1
R2 R1 R2
2 1
b1  1
R2 R1 R2
 NARROWBAND BANDPASS AND
BANDREJECT FILTERS

The cascade or parallel component designs from simpler low-pass

and high-pass filters will result in low-Q filters. Consider the
transfer function

  c   s  sc
H ( s)      2 Thus with discrete
 s  c  s  c  s  2c  c
2
real poles, the highest
0.5s quality factor
 2
s  s  c2 bandpass filter we
can achieve has
o 1 Q=1/2
  2c , o2  c2  Q  
 2