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Digital Transmission
Digital Transmission
Digital Transmission
Digital Transmission
Conversion
methods
AM FM PM
Multilevel Multitransition
QAM
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4.1 DIGITAL-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION
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Characteristics of Line Coding
Signal element vs. data element
dc components
Self-synchronization
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Data element versus Signal element
Data element – the smallest entity that can
represent a piece of information : this is the bit.
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Data element versus Signal element
Figure 4.2 Signal element versus data element
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Data Rate versus Signal Rate
Data rate (bit rate) : the No. of data elements sent in 1s.(bps)
S = c x N x 1/r (baud)
where S : No. of signal element, (baud)
c : case factor,
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Data Rate versus Signal Rate
Example 4.1
A signal is carrying data in which one data
element is encoded as one signal element ( r = 1).
If the bit rate is 100 kbps, what is the average
value of the baud rate if c is between 0 and 1?
Solution
We assume that the average value of c is 1/2 . The baud
rate is then
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Bandwidth
Note
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Min. Bandwidth & Max. Data rate
Minimum bandwidth
Bminimum = c x N x 1/r
Nmaximum = (1/c) x B x r
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Min. Bandwidth & Max. Data rate
Example 4.2
The maximum data rate of a channel (see Chapter
3) is Nmax = 2 × B × log2 L (defined by the
Nyquist formula). Does this agree with the
previous formula for Nmax?
Solution
A signal with L levels actually can carry log2L bits per
level. If each level corresponds to one signal element
and we assume the average case (c = 1/2), then we have
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DC Components
When the voltage level in a digital signal is constant for a
while, the spectrum creates very low frequencies.
These frequencies are around zero, called DC(direct current)
components.
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Self-Synchronization
Receiver’s bit intervals must correspond exactly to
the sender’s bit intervals
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Self-Synchronization
Figure 4.3 Effect of lack of synchronization
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Self-Synchronization
Example 4.3
In a digital transmission, the receiver clock is 0.1 percent
faster than the sender clock. How many extra bits per
second does the receiver receive if the data rate is
1 kbps? How many if the data rate is 1 Mbps?
Solution
At 1 kbps, the receiver receives 1001 bps instead of 1000
bps.
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Line Coding Schemes
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Line Coding Schemes
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Variations of Polar Schemes
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Polar Schemes
Polar encoding uses two voltage levels
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NRZ-L and NRZ-I
In Non-return to Zero-level (NRZ-L) the level of the signal is
dependent upon the state of the bit.
Figure 4.6 Polar NRZ-L and NRZ-I schemes r: average baud rate
s: signal rate
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Note
Solution
The average signal rate is S = N/2 = 500 kbaud. The
minimum bandwidth for this average baud rate is Bmin
= S = 500 kHz.
RZ (Return-to-zero)
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Biphase: Manchester & Differential Manchester
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Biphase: Manchester & Differential Manchester
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Bipolar Schemes
In bipolar encoding, we use three levels:
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Multilevel Schemes
The desire to increase the data speed or decrease the
required bandwidth has resulted in the creation of
many scheme.
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Multilevel Schemes (cont’d)
Figure 4.10 Multilevel: 2B1Q scheme
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Multilevel Schemes (cont’d)
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4.2 Block Coding
We need redundancy to endure synchronization
and to provide some kind of inherent error
detecting.
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Block Coding (cont’d)
Figure 4.14 Block coding concept
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Block Coding (cont’d)
Figure 4.15 Using block coding 4B/5B with NRZ-I line coding scheme
Ex) 100Base-FX
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Block Coding (cont’d)
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Block Coding (cont’d)
Table 4.2 4B/5B mapping codes
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Scrambling
Biphase and the other scheme are not suitable for long-
distance communication because of their wide bandwidth
requirement and DC component.
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Scrambling (cont’d)
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Scrambling (cont’d)
Figure 4.19 Two cases of B8ZS scrambling technique
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Sampling
Pulse amplitude modulation has some applications,
but it is not used by itself in data communication.
However, it is the first step in another very popular
conversion method called pulse code modulation.
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Sampling (cont’d)
Figure 4.22 Three different sampling methods for PCM
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Sampling (cont’d)
Note
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Sampling (cont’d)
Figure 4.23 Nyquist sampling rate for low-pass and bandpass signals
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Sampling (cont’d)
Example 4.6
For an intuitive example of the Nyquist theorem, let us
sample a simple sine wave at three sampling rates: fs = 4f
(2 times the Nyquist rate), fs = 2f (Nyquist rate), and
fs = f (one-half the Nyquist rate). Figure 4.24 shows the
sampling and the subsequent recovery of the signal.
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Sampling (cont’d)
Example 4.9
Telephone companies digitize voice by assuming a
maximum frequency of 4000 Hz. The sampling rate
therefore is 8000 samples per second.
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Quantization
The result of sampling is a series of pulses with amplitude values
between the max. and min. amplitudes of the signal.
Quantization Error
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Quantization (cont’d)
Example 4.13
A telephone subscriber line must have an SNRdB above 40.
What is the minimum number of bits per sample?
Solution
We can calculate the number of bits as
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Encoding (cont’d)
Example 4.14
We want to digitize the human voice. What is the bit rate,
assuming 8 bits per sample?
Solution
The human voice normally contains frequencies from 0 to
4000 Hz. So the sampling rate and bit rate are calculated
as follows:
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Original Signal Recovery
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PCM Bandwidth
If we digitized the signal, what is the new bandwidth of the
channel ?
Bmin = nb x Banalog
The maximum data rate of a Channel
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PCM Bandwidth
Example 4.15
We have a low-pass analog signal of 4 kHz. If we send the
analog signal, we need a channel with a minimum
bandwidth of 4 kHz. If we digitize the signal and send 8
bits per sample, we need a channel with a minimum
bandwidth of 8 × 4 kHz = 32 kHz.
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Delta Modulation
Delta Modulation (DM) techniques have been developed to
reduce the complexity of PCM.
PCM finds the value of the signal amplitude for each sample;
DM finds the change from the previous sample.
Figure 4.28 The process of delta modulation
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Delta Modulation (cont’d)
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Delta Modulation (cont’d)
Figure 4.30 Delta demodulation components
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4.3 TRANSMISSION MODES
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Transmission Modes (cont’d)
Figure 4.32 Parallel transmission
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Transmission Modes (cont’d)
Figure 4.33 Serial transmission
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Transmission Modes (cont’d)
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Transmission Modes (cont’d)
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Transmission Modes (cont’d)
Figure 4.35 Synchronous transmission
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Transmission Modes (cont’d)
Isochronous transmission
In the real-time audio and video, in which uneven delays
between frames are not acceptable, synchronous transmission
fails.
TV images are broadcast at the rate of 30 images per second;
They must be viewed at the same rate
the entire stream of bits must be synchronized
The isochronous transmission guarantees that the data arrive at
a fixed rate
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Summary (1)
Digital-to-digital conversion involves three techniques: line
coding, block coding and scrambling.
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Q&A
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